Children and Young People: Indicators of Wellbeing in New Zealand 2008

Appendices
Appendix 1: Changes to the indicators
Appendix 2: Technical details

ISBN 978-0-478-33506-4 (Print)
ISBN 978-0-478-33507-1 (Online)

The other sections and the appendices of the Children and Young People: Indicators of Wellbeing in New Zealand 2008 can be found at www.msd.govt.nz

Appendix 1: Changes to the indicators

The following table sets out the changes to the 35 indicators used in the 2004 edition of Children and Young People: Indicators of Wellbeing in New Zealand, bringing the total number of indicators in this edition to 42.

Action	Indicator	Notes	
Deleted (4)	Child abuse and neglect	This indicator does not meet the criterion of interpretability over time. It is not possible to say whether changes in the rate reflect changes in the prevalence of child abuse or changes in agency resources or administrative recording practices, or changes in public awareness and willingness to report. It has not been included in the annual social report since 2004.	
	Reading achievement at Year 5 	The data for this indicator comes from the Progress in International Reading Literacy Study (PIRLS). The survey covers a broader range of countries than the OECD countries used for comparison in the other indicators in this report. Although provisional results from the 2005/2006 survey had been published at the time the set of indicators for this report was being reviewed, ethnic data was not yet available. The indicator, with ethnic data, was published by the Ministry of Education in June 2008 and is available here: www.educationcounts.govt.nz/indicators/education_and_learning_outcomes/literacy/748
This report includes an indicator of reading literacy at age 15.	
	Food security	It is unlikely that this indicator could be updated when the next child nutrition survey is undertaken in 2012 as the measure will change. The existing indicator is dated (1997) and the Ministry of Health supported its deletion.	
	Children and young people with low living standards	The Ministry of Social Development’s 2006 review of the ELSI scale on which this indicator is based found that, while ELSI provides good information on the relativities between different groups at a particular point in time, it is less well suited to tracking changes in living standards over time. The Ministry is currently investigating a suite of measures that may overcome this problem.	
Revised or re-positioned (3)	Participation in sport and active leisure	This has been replaced with an indicator on Physical activity (for youth aged 15–24 years) and has been moved from the Social Connectedness domain to the Health domain.	
	Under 18 birth rate	Reflecting New Zealand research findings (eg Boden, et al., 2008), this has been broadened to include births to females under 20, renamed Early childbearing, and moved from the Health domain to the Care and Support domain.	

Action	Indicator	Notes	
	Perceptions of safety	Consistent with the change in The Social Report 2007, this has been replaced by Fear of crime, a broader indicator of the effect of crime on wellbeing and quality of life, newly available in the 2006 Crime and Safety Survey.	
New indicators added (11)	Immunisation	This was one of the preferred indicators for which there was no robust national data in 2004. The data is now available.	
	Oral health	Caries free at age 5 and Year 8 is an established indicator of child health, recommended by MoH and supported by other agencies.	
	Children living with a parent who smokes	Parental smoking influences adolescent smoking (Scragg R, 2003). MoH and Pediatric Society have similar measures on this topic. This one is census-based, comparing 1996 and 2006, and includes family type.  	
	Witnessing violence in the home	Based on the Ministry of Health’s 2007 analysis of Youth2000 survey data, this is one of the few indicators we have from the perspective of youth themselves. A risk factor for a range of adverse outcomes.	
	Children of parents without educational qualifications	Parental (and particularly maternal) education is related to child educational outcomes. This census-based indicator updates similar measures used in the inter-agency Report on Cross-sectoral Outcome Measures and Targets, 1999. 	
	Retention of students in senior secondary schools	An established indicator of student engagement and participation, related to other indicators such as educational achievement, youth justice and early childbearing.	
	Participation in tertiary education	An important access measure; consistent with inclusion in The Social Report.	
	Children without a parent in paid work	This indicator has been included to illustrate the impact of changes in the labour market on children over the period 1986 to 2006. It is an update of a census-based measure used in two Statistics New Zealand reports on children (1995, 1998) and the Report on Cross-sectoral Outcome Measures and Targets (1999).	
	Employment	Completes the picture of youth participation in the labour market. Consistent with inclusion in The Social Report. 	
	Language retention	Consistent with the measure in The Social Report, this indicator in the Cultural Identity domain provides some visibility to a diverse range of ethnic groups usually subsumed into “Other”.	
	Telephone/mobile access in the home	A census-based measure, complementing the indicator on access to the internet in the home in the Social Connectedness domain.	

Appendix 2: Technical details
Population Overview
Data sources:
Number of children and young people: Statistics New Zealand (2002) 2001 Census: Population Structure and Internal Migration, Table 3; Statistics New Zealand (2007) QuickStats National Highlights: 2006 Census, Table 4, and age by single years downloaded from Table Builder on Statistics New Zealand website, www.stats.govt.nz; Statistics New Zealand, National Population Projections: 2006(base)–2061, Series 5 (Table Builder).
Births: Statistics New Zealand website, www.stats.govt.nz for Miscellaneous Birth and Fertility Rate Tables, Tables 1, 3, 10; Age-specific Fertility Rates, Total, Māori , 1962–2007; and Age-specific Fertility Rates for the Major Ethnic Groups, 1996, 2001, 2006. Statistics New Zealand (2008) Births and Deaths: December 2007 quarter, Information Release; Statistics New Zealand (2008) Demographic Trends 2007, p 36 and Table 2.05; Ministry of Health, New Zealand Health Information Service (2008) Statistical Information on Hospital-based Maternity Events, 2005, p 20, Table 2.5.
Note: The median age of women giving birth to their first child is based on information collected on other children from the birth registration form. Time-series data was disrupted in 1998 with a shift to collecting this information from all couples. Previously, parity information was collected from married couples only.
Migration and population growth: Statistics New Zealand, permanent and long-term (PLT) external migration data, downloaded from INFOS.
Children and young people born overseas: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 2006, unpublished data.
Regional distribution: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 2006, data downloaded from Table Builder on Statistics New Zealand website, www.stats.govt.nz.
Urban-rural distribution: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 2006, unpublished data.
Sex distribution: Statistics New Zealand website, www.stats.govt.nz for Miscellaneous Birth and Fertility Rate Tables, Births by sex, 1971–2007; and Estimated resident population by age, mean for the year ended 31 December 1991–2007.
Ethnic distribution: Statistics New Zealand, five-year ethnic population estimates, 1996, 2001, 2006, downloaded from Table Builder on Statistics New Zealand website, www.stats.govt.nz; Statistics New Zealand (2008) Projected Ethnic Population of New Zealand, 2006(base)–2026 (Table Builder); Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 2006, unpublished data by age and region.
Official languages: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 2006, unpublished data.
Children and young people with disabilities: Statistics New Zealand (2007) 2006 Disability Survey, Information Release; data downloaded from Table Builder on Statistics New Zealand website, www.stats.govt.nz and unpublished customised data.
Children’s family circumstances: Source for Table P5: Statistics New Zealand, unpublished census data for dependent children under 18 years. International comparison for children under 18 living in one-parent families: UK: Office for National Statistics (2008) General Social Survey 2006, Table 3.7, Families with dependent children: 1972 to 2006 (dependent children under 18); US: Census Bureau (2007) Current Population Survey Reports, 2006 March CPS, America’s Families and Living Arrangements, Table CH-1, Living arrangements of children under 18 years old; Australia: Australian Bureau of Statistics (2007), 2006 Census of Population and Housing, Cat. 2068.0: Age of dependent children by family composition and country of birth of parents (counting dependent children under 18); Canada: Statistics Canada, 2006 Census, Cat. 97-553-XCB2006011, Age group of child, census family structure and sex for children in census families (counting children under 18).
Ethnic differences in family structure: Source for Table P6: for the years 1991, 1996, 2001: Statistics New Zealand (2002) 2001 Census: Ethnic Groups, Tables 1a, 1b, 1c, 1d, 1e; for the years 1986 and 2006: unpublished census data. Source for Figure 8: unpublished census data; Source for Table P7: Statistics New Zealand, unpublished census data. Birth registration data from Statistics New Zealand, Population Statistics (unpublished data).
Children involved in divorce: Statistics New Zealand website, www.stats.govt.nz for Divorces, additional tables and Estimated resident population 0–16 years, mean for the year ended 31 December 1991–2007. Estimated de facto population 0–16 years, mean for the year ended 31 December 1981–1990 downloaded from INFOS. 
Parental employment: Statistics New Zealand, (1998) New Zealand Now – Children, p 56; Statistics New Zealand (1995) New Zealand Now – Children, p 34 (figures cited from these two published sources are for children aged under 15 years); Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 2001, 2006, unpublished data. 
Children’s family incomes: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 2006, unpublished data.
Living arrangements of young people aged 15–24: For the years 1981, 1991: Statistics New Zealand (1994) New Zealand Now: Families, p 59-60; for the years 1986, 1996, 2006: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, unpublished data (including 2006 Census data for young people living in same-sex couples). Same-sex attraction: Le Brun et al. (2004) Non-heterosexual Youth – A Profile of their Health and Wellbeing: Data from Youth2000.
Housing tenure: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 2001 and 2006, unpublished data.
Household size: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 2006, unpublished data.
Access to private transport: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 2006, unpublished data.
Health
H1 Low birth weight births
Definition/formulae: The number of children who weighed less than 2,500 grams at birth, per 100 live births.
Limitations of data: The two factors that determine low birth weight (pre-term birth and small for gestational age, or SGA) have different causes, with different implications for later health outcomes, and they may follow different trends.  Birth weight percentile charts used to calculate SGA rates relate to population birth weights at a particular time and become less meaningful as population birth weights change. As average birth weight varies by ethnic group, using the same measure of low birth weight for all ethnic groups may underestimate low birth weight rates for Pacific babies and overestimate them for Asian and Indian babies. For the same reason, comparisons between countries with different ethnic profiles may be difficult to interpret.  
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data sources: New Zealand Health Information Service, unpublished data; Craig E, Jackson C, Han Y, NZCYES Steering Committee (2007) Monitoring the Health of New Zealand Children and Young People: Indicator Handbook, Auckland: Paediatric Society of New Zealand, New Zealand Child and Youth Epidemiology Service; OECD (2007) OECD Health at a Glance, 2007, Paris: OECD. 
H2 Infant mortality

Definition:  The annual number of deaths of infants aged less than one year, per 1,000 live births in that year.  Infant deaths consist of early neonatal deaths (those occurring within seven days of birth), late neonatal deaths (after seven days and before 28 days) and post-neonatal deaths (after 28 days and before one year).

Limitations of data:  The infant mortality rate published by the New Zealand Health Information Service (NZHIS) in Fetal and Infant Deaths, tends to be somewhat higher than the rate published annually by Statistics New Zealand.  There are two main reasons for this. Firstly, NZHIS rates are based on total births and deaths, while Statistics New Zealand excludes births and deaths of people who are not usually resident in New Zealand. Secondly, because NZHIS publishes mortality data only when the cause of death has been recorded for all deaths registered in a particular year, there is often a long time lag between year of registration and publication.  Statistics New Zealand’s infant mortality rate is available sooner, but does not include late death registrations. 
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data sources:  New Zealand Health Information Service (2007) Fetal and Infant Deaths 2003 and 2004; New Zealand Health Information Service (2008) Mortality data: Fetal and infant mortality rates, 2003, 2004 and 2005, www.nzhis.govt.nz/moh.nsf/pagesns/530, and unpublished provisional data for 2006; OECD Health Data 2008, June 2008: 
www.oecd.org/document/16/0,3343,en_2649_34631_2085200_1_1_1_1,00.html
H3 Immunisation
Definition: Immunisation coverage is the proportion of children who are fully immunised against vaccine-preventable diseases at the age of two years, as measured by the National Immunisation Register (NIR). The NIR was rolled out in DHBs during 2005 from April to December. Fully immunised at age two years includes the following vaccinations:
•	three doses of diphtheria, tetanus and acellular pertussis vaccine (DTaP)
•	three doses of polio vaccine (IPV or OPV)
•	three doses of Haemophilus influenzae type b vaccine (Hib)
•	three doses of hepatitis B vaccine (or four doses including neonatal doses if required)
•	one dose of measles, mumps and rubella vaccine (MMR)
Fully immunised status does not include bacillus Calmette-Guérin (BCG) vaccination. Children partially immunised overseas are considered to be not fully immunised. 
Limitations of data: Data are based on a NIR which was rolled out to DHBs from April to December 2005 and therefore does not include children who were born before the NIR starting date in each DHB. 
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data source: Ministry of Health (2007) The National Childhood Immunisation Coverage Survey 2005; Ministry of Health (2008) Immunisation coverage at milestone age (24 months of age), National Childhood Immunisation Register, 12 months to December 2007; WHO/UNICEF estimates of national immunization coverage, as of August 2007, www.who.int/immunization_monitoring/en/globalsummary/timeseries/tswucoveragedtp3.htm
H4 Hearing failure at school entry
Definition/formulae: The proportion of Year 1 students (children aged five) who failed the new entrant hearing screening (audiometry) test.
Limitations of data: New entrant school children are tested on both pure tone audiometry and tympanometry. Audiometry is a more direct measure of hearing, but it can be less reliable in the noisy test conditions frequently found in schools. The combination of tests ensures more valid identification of children with hearing loss and/or ear disease.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data sources: Greville Consulting (2006) New Zealand Vision and Hearing Screening Report, July 2005 – July 2006; Craig E, Jackson C, Han DY, NZCYES Steering Committee (2007) Monitoring the Health of New Zealand Children and Young People: Indicator Handbook.
H5 Oral health
Definition/formulae: The proportion of children who are free of dental caries (tooth decay) at age 5; and the sum of decayed, missing or filled teeth for individual children in Year 8 (around age 12), expressed as an average number per child (DMFT score). For both measures, the denominator is the child population at the respective ages who completed treatment with the school dental service in the year.
Limitations of data: Dental health status data is collected on 5 year olds and children in Year 8 on completion of treatment. Unless treatment is completed prior to a child turning 6 years old or prior to discharge from the School Dental Service in Year 8, a child’s dental status is not recorded in the dataset. 
Note on the two measures:
Caries free at age 5 is a good measure of the prevalence of dental disease at entry to the school dental service in early childhood. By Year 8, measures of prevalence can be misleading. The DMFT score gives an indication of disease severity at the end of the period covered by the school dental service.
Fluoridation status refers to the water supply of the school which the student attended, rather than the fluoridation status of the area in which they lived.   
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data source:  Ministry of Health, data downloaded from
www.moh.govt.nz/moh.nsf/by+unid/AC576F083066CD93CC25723400147B10?Open#related on 27 February 2008; OECD (2007) Health at a Glance 2007: OECD Indicators
H6 Obesity
Definition/formulae: The proportion of children aged 5–14 whose Body Mass Index (weight in kilograms / height in metres squared) met the IOTF BMI cut-off for obesity in the 2002 National Children’s Nutrition Survey and the 2006/07 New Zealand Health Survey. The IOTF BMI cut-off points used to define thinness, overweight and obesity in children have been designed to coincide with the WHO BMI cut-off points for adults at age 18 years for underweight, overweight and obesity respectively. The IOTF BMI cut-off points are sex and age-specific.
Limitations of data: Survey estimates are subject to sampling error and small differences between groups may not be statistically significant.

Since BMI does not distinguish between weight associated with muscle and weight associated with fat, it provides only a crude measure of body fatness in individuals. However, it does provide a good estimate of the proportion of the population with increased risk of health conditions associated with obesity (World Health Organization 2000).
It is important to note that although BMI cut-off points have been used to define overweight and obesity, the risk of disease increases as BMI increases in all, even within the ‘normal’ range.
The same BMI cut-off points have been used for all ethnic groups, and no adjustment for clothing weight was made. All data presented in this report have been analysed using the same definitions and therefore time trends can be interpreted as real changes over time.
Data source: Ministry of Health, Public Health Intelligence data are from the 2002 Children’s Nutrition Survey and the 2006/07 New Zealand Health Survey. Note 2002 figures may be different from those presented in NZ Food, NZ Children: Key Results of the 2002 National Children’s Nutrition Survey (Ministry of Health 2003), due to updated analysis methodology. For further information regarding analysis methods please see www.moh.govt.nz/moh.nsf/indexmh/portrait-of-health
The data source uses a total response output method for ethnic data.
H7 Physical activity
Definition/formulae: The proportion of young people aged 15–24 years who met physical activity guidelines (ie, were physically active for at least 30 minutes a day on five or more days over the last week), as measured by the 2002/03 and 2006/07 New Zealand Health Surveys. 
 Physical activity refers to all movement produced by skeletal muscles that increases energy expenditure, whether it is incidental, occupational or recreational.
Limitations of data: Survey estimates are subject to sampling error and small differences between groups may not be statistically significant.
Physical activity levels are based on self-reported physical activity, using the NZ Physical Activity Questionnaire short form (NZPAQ-SF). The NZPAQ-SF asks participants on how many days in the previous seven days they had done brisk walking, moderate activity and vigorous activity, and how many hours and minutes they had done per day for each of those activities. Total physical activity is calculated as brisk walking + moderate + (vigorous x 2). 
Data source: Ministry of Health, unpublished data from the 2002/03 and 2006/07 New Zealand Health Surveys.
The data source uses a total response output method for ethnic data.
H8 Cigarette smoking at 14–15 years
Definition/formulae:  The proportion of Year 10 (14–15 year old) secondary school students who smoke cigarettes regularly (daily, weekly or monthly), as measured by the ASH National Year 10 Snapshot Survey conducted for the Ministry of Health.
The “regular smoker” definition used in this indicator is comparable with the “current smoker” definition used in the New Zealand Health Survey, but differs from the Population Census definition of “regular smoker” (smoking one or more cigarettes a day).
The Year 10 Snapshot Survey is a census-style survey of around 25,000 14–15 year olds. Students answer anonymous self-administered questionnaires about their smoking behaviour. Parental smoking and smoking in the home as reported by students are also measured because they increase the risk of a young person smoking. This survey has been conducted annually since 1999. The annual school response rate was 65–67 percent between 2002–2004, 57-58 percent in 2005–2006 and 47 percent in 2007.
Ethnicity is self-defined. As students were able to choose more than one ethnic group, a priority system of classifying ethnicity was used, in the order: Māori, Pacific, Asian, European/Other.
Limitations of data:  Estimates from sample surveys are subject to sampling error.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data source:  Paynter, J. (2008) National Year 10 ASH Snapshot Survey, 1999–2007: Trends in tobacco use by students aged 14–15 years. A report for the Ministry of Health, Action on Smoking and Health New Zealand and the Health Sponsorship Council.
H9 Youth suicide
Definition: The number of suicide deaths per 100,000 population, expressed as a three-year moving average rate, for the population aged 15–24 years.
Limitations of data: Because suicide is a relatively rare event in statistical terms, rates of suicide can vary markedly from year to year.  While three-year moving average rates smooth the variation, any interpretation of trends requires an examination of rates over several years.
The data for 2005 are provisional. Classification of a death as suicide is subject to a coroner’s inquiry, and only on completion of an inquest can a death be officially classified as suicide. This means there can be considerable delay in the publication of the final statistics and that often data differs between publications.

Hospitalisations for self-harm represent unique ‘events’ of self-harm, rather than people. People who are hospitalised several times for the same event are counted only once.  People who are hospitalised for further separate intentional self-harm events are counted once for each event. People who intentionally harm themselves but are not admitted to hospital are not included in these data.
Population denominators are also subject to revision following the five-yearly Population Census.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data sources: Ministry of Health (2007) Suicide Facts: 2005–2006 data; Ministry of Health, unpublished data.
Care and support
CS1 Positive relationships with parents
Definition/formulae: The proportion of secondary school students aged 12–18 years who reported that their Mum and/or Dad (or someone who acts as Mum and/or Dad) cares a lot about them, that they feel close to Mum and/or Dad most of the time, and that they are able to spend enough time with Mum and/or Dad.
Youth2000 was a nationally-representative youth health and wellbeing survey administered during the 2001 school year using laptop computers.  A total of 9,699 students from 114 New Zealand secondary schools were surveyed, representing approximately 4 percent of all New Zealand secondary school students. The schools were randomly selected from all 390 New Zealand schools with 50 or more students in Years 9–13 in the year 2000.  From each school, students were randomly selected from the school roll.  The resulting sample of young people was ethnically diverse and included students from throughout the country. A second survey was conducted in 2007 and the report will be published in late 2008.
Limitations of data: Estimates from sample surveys are subject to error. 
Differences between groups should be interpreted with caution. The large sample size means that even small differences may be statistically significant. 
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Ethnic comparisons should be interpreted with caution. The classification of young people into discrete ethnic groups is not robust and may misclassify some participants. Comparisons between ethnic groups, while adjusting for some factors, may incorrectly lead to the assumption that remaining differences are due to ethnicity. There may, however, be remaining unaccounted for confounding factors that contribute to any perceived difference.
Data source: Adolescent Health Research Group (2003) New Zealand Youth: A Profile of their Health and Wellbeing, Tables 1–3, p 46.

CS2 Witnessing violence in the home
Definition/formulae: The proportion of secondary school students who reported witnessing violence committed by an adult towards another adult or child in their home in the last 12 months, as measured by the Youth2000 Survey. Violence was defined in the survey as yelling or swearing, or hitting or physically hurting another adult or child.
Youth2000 was a nationally-representative youth health and wellbeing survey administered during the 2001 school year using laptop computers.  A total of 9,699 students from 114 New Zealand secondary schools were surveyed, representing approximately 4 percent of all New Zealand secondary school students. The schools were randomly selected from all 390 New Zealand schools with 50 or more students in Years 9–13 in the year 2000.  From each school, students were randomly selected from the school roll.  The resulting sample of young people was ethnically diverse and included students from throughout the country. A second survey was conducted in 2007 and the report will be published in late 2008.
Limitations of data: Estimates from sample surveys are subject to error. 
Differences between groups should be interpreted with caution. The large sample size means that even small differences may be statistically significant. 
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Ethnic comparisons should be interpreted with caution. The classification of young people into discrete ethnic groups is not robust and may misclassify some participants. Comparisons between ethnic groups, while adjusting for some factors, may incorrectly lead to the assumption that remaining differences are due to ethnicity. There may, however, be remaining unaccounted for confounding factors that contribute to any perceived difference.
Data sources: Fleming TM, Watson PD, Robinson E, Ameratunga S, Dixon R, Clark TC, Crengle S (2007) Violence and New Zealand Young People: Findings of Youth2000 – A National Health and Wellbeing Survey. Auckland: The University of Auckland, www.youth2000.ac.nz/pdf/violence-nz-yp.pdf; Adolescent Health Research Group, unpublished data. 
CS3 Early childbearing
Definition/formulae: The number of live births to females under 20 years of age, per 1,000 females aged 15–19 years.
Limitations of data: “Early childbearing” is relative to prevailing childbearing norms which change over time and differ between communities and ethnic groups. Age 20 years is an arbitrary upper level and the disadvantages associated with early childbearing may also be present for mothers in their early twenties.

Data sources: Statistics New Zealand, Age-specific Fertility Rates for the Total and Māori populations; Age-specific Fertility Rates for the Major Ethnic Groups, website tables, downloaded on 5 February 2007, www.stats.govt.nz/tables/births-tables.htm; Statistics New Zealand (2008) Births and Deaths: December 2007 quarter, Information Release; Statistics New Zealand (2008) Demographic Trends, 2007, Table 2.13; Craig, et al (2007) Monitoring the Health of New Zealand Children and Young People: Indicator Handbook; UK Office for National Statistics (2007) Births Statistics, England and Wales, 2006, Table 3.1; US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (2007), Births: Preliminary data for 2006, Table 2, National Vital Statistics Reports, v56 no7, December 2007; World Bank, World Development Indicators: Adolescent fertility rate. www.worldbank.org/data http://siteresources.worldbank.org/DATASTATISTICS/Resources/WDI08_section2_intro.pdf
Education
E1 Children of parents without educational qualifications
Definition/formulae: Dependent children under the age of 18 who live in two-parent families where both parents have no educational qualifications or who live with in one-parent families where the parent has no educational qualification, as a proportion of all dependent children under the age of 18.
Limitations of data: The data used in this indicator excludes a number of children for whom there was no educational qualification information available for one or both parents in two-parent families, or for the sole parent in one-parent families. For children in one-parent families, information on parental qualifications is only available for the parent with whom the child usually lives.
The census ethnicity question has changed over time, affecting comparability.
Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, unpublished data. The data source uses a total response output method for ethnic data.
E2 Participation in early childhood education
Definition/formulae: The number of children aged 3 and 4 years enrolled in early childhood education (ECE) programmes as a proportion of the estimated population aged 3 and 4 years. ECE programmes include: licensed ECE services (kindergartens, playcentres, education and care services, home-based services, casual education and care (no regular roll), correspondence school and te köhanga reo); licence-exempt ECE services (early childhood development funded playgroups, Pacific peoples early childhood groups, and playcentres); and licence-exempt köhanga reo.

Limitations of data: Rates of participation are only ‘apparent’ because children may be enrolled in more than one ECE centre. The rates may therefore be inflated. The measure does not provide information on the length of participation or on the quality of the programmes, both of which are relevant to positive educational outcomes.  Due to methodological changes in 2006, recent figures from licence-exempt groups are not directly comparable with earlier years.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data sources: Ministry of Education, Early Childhood Education, Licensed Services and Licence-Exempt Groups 2007
www.educationcounts.govt.nz/statistics/ece/ece_staff_return/licensed_services_and_licence-exempt_groups/17812 Ministry of Education, Early Childhood Education Enrolments (Licensed Services & Licence-exempt ECE Groups): Time-series; Ministry of Education, Prior participation in early childhood education: new entrants, www.educationcounts.govt.nz/indicators/student_participation/early_childhood_education/prior_participation_in_early_childhood_education_new_entrants; Ministry of Education (various years) Education Statistics of New Zealand, Education Statistics News Sheet, v 10, no 1, March 2001; unpublished tables; OECD Family Database, Table PF11.1, Enrolment rates in childcare and early education for children under six, 2004, www.oecd.org/document/4/0,3343,en_2649_34819_37836996_1_1_1_1,00.html
E3 School truancy
Definition/formulae: The school truancy rate in this indicator is defined as the average (mean) daily number of unjustified absences from school per 100 students enrolled. Unjustified absences are absences for a half-day or more that are not explained to the satisfaction of the school. Students who were unjustifiably absent from school for a half-day or more on three or more days in the week of the survey are defined as frequent truants. Both the unjustified absence rate and the frequent truancy rate have been standardised by ethnic group, school decile, sex and year level. The data comes from the Ministry of Education’s Attendance Survey, conducted during one week in August 2004 and 2006.

Intermittent unjustified absences, of less than half a day, which include arriving late and skipping classes, are not included in the indicator.

Limitations of data: There is some variation between schools in what is regarded as an unjustified absence. Events that happen during the survey week can affect the data (eg snow, floods, earthquakes).
The survey questionnaire allows single ethnicity responses only. The ethnicity of students was recorded by the schools completing the questionnaire. This may have affected the reliability of the ethnicity data. In particular, the count of ‘Other’ students among the unjustifiably absent was anomalously high in 2006, suggesting a discrepancy in the coding. Because of this, ‘Other’ has not been separately reported. 
Data sources: Ministry of Education [2007] “Truancy from school”, downloaded from the Education Counts website on 15 March, www.educationcounts.govt.nz unpublished data from the Ministry of Education.
E4 Reading literacy at age 15
Definition/formulae: The mean scores for 15-year-old New Zealand students based on the international reading literacy scales set by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study in 2006. The overall reading literacy scale is derived from three separate scales that measure relative performance in retrieving information, interpreting texts, and “reflecting on and evaluating texts” (the ability of students to relate what they have read to their knowledge, experience and ideas).
Background: In 2000, 2003 and 2006 New Zealand took part in the international PISA study that assessed the skills and knowledge of 15-year-old students in three key areas of knowledge and skill: reading literacy, mathematical literacy and scientific literacy. The study was commissioned by the OECD. In 2006 New Zealand was one of 57 countries that took part. Thirty of these countries are members of the OECD. PISA was first administered in each participating country in 2000 and from then on a three-yearly basis. Although each area of knowledge and skill is assessed on each occasion, the focus of the study changes. The focus in 2000 was on reading literacy, in 2003 on mathematical literacy and in 2006 on scientific literacy.
Data source: Maree Telford and Robyn Caygill (2007) PISA 2006: How ready are our 15-year-olds for tomorrow’s world? Wellington: Ministry of Education; OECD (2007) PISA 2006 Science Competencies for Tomorrow's World, online tables at:
www.oecd.org/document/2/0,3343,en_32252351_32236191_39718850_1_1_1_1,00.html
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
E5 Mathematical literacy at age 15
Definition/formulae: The mean scores for 15-year-old New Zealand students based on the international mathematics literacy scale set by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study in 2006. The combined mathematical literacy scale is derived from measurement of four content areas: quantity (related to number), change and relationships (related to algebra), space and shape (related to geometry) and uncertainty (related to statistics). 
Background: See E3 Reading literacy of 15 year olds.
Data source: Maree Telford and Robyn Caygill (2007) PISA 2006: How ready are our 15-year-olds for tomorrow’s world? Wellington: Ministry of Education; OECD (2007) PISA 2006 Science Competencies for Tomorrow's World, online tables at:
www.oecd.org/document/2/0,3343,en_32252351_32236191_39718850_1_1_1_1,00.html
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
E6 Scientific literacy at age 15
Definition/formulae: The mean scores for 15-year-old New Zealand students based on the international scientific literacy scale set by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study in 2006. The assessment examined three scientific competencies (identifying scientific issues, explaining phenomena scientifically and using scientific evidence) and two scientific knowledge areas (knowledge of science and knowledge about science.)
Background: See E3 Reading literacy of 15 year olds.
Data source: Maree Telford and Robyn Caygill (2007) PISA 2006: How ready are our 15-year-olds for tomorrow’s world? Wellington: Ministry of Education; OECD (2007) PISA 2006 Science Competencies for Tomorrow's World, online tables at:
www.oecd.org/document/2/0,3343,en_32252351_32236191_39718850_1_1_1_1,00.html 
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
E7 Retention of students in senior secondary schools
Definition/formulae: The percentage of students staying on at school to age 17.
Limitations of data: Two different measures are used in this indicator. The headline measure is calculated using the proportions of school leavers aged 17 or above, from a file of disaggregated school leaver records.  As the data included just over 90 percent of school leavers all figures are estimates.
The measure used to monitor change over time (Figures E7.1 and E7.2) is calculated from aggregate roll return data which captures the age of the students in whole years. Therefore, a student aged 17 on 1 July, could be between 17 years and 0 days and 17 years and 364 days. Statistically it is a measure of those who stay at school to age 17.5 years on average. Since the denominator for the measure is the number of students in the 1 July roll return from the year students were aged 14.5 years, on average, net migration can also affect results.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data sources: Ministry of Education [electronic resource] Retention of students in senior secondary schools
 www.educationcounts.govt.nz/indicators/student_participation/schooling/1955
E8 School leavers with higher qualifications
Definition/formulae: The proportion of secondary school leavers who left school with a qualification at National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) Level 2 or above. 

In Figure E8.1, the data up to 2002 includes school leavers with: 
•	National Certificate Level 4
•	A or B Bursary/National Certificate Level 3
•	Entrance Qualification/42 or more credits National Certificate Level 3 or above/Accelerated Christian Education Certificate or overseas award at Year 13 Level
•	Higher School Certificate/14–41 credits National Certificate Level 3 or above
•	National Certificate Level 2/1–13 credits National Certificate Level 3 or above.
The data for 2003 also includes leavers who attained NCEA Level 2.
The data for 2005 and 2006 includes qualifications at NCEA Level 2 or above.
Limitations of data: School leaver data collection was changed as a result of the introduction of NCEA in 2002. A direct comparison cannot be made between rates up to and including 2002 with rates for 2003 on, due to the change in the qualification structure. Previous qualifications, such as School Certificate, were awarded to students if they had completed the assessment and met attendance requirements, independent of the grade awarded. The new qualification structure is designed to award students credits when they have met achievement rather than participation criteria.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data sources: Ministry of Education (various years) Education Statistics of New Zealand; Ministry of Education, Education Counts website, Indicators, Education and Learning, Qualifications, School leavers with NCEA Level 2 or above, www.educationcounts.govt.nz/indicators/education_and_learning_outcomes/qualifications/1781; unpublished data from the Ministry of Education.
E9 Participation in tertiary education
Definition/formulae: Participation in tertiary education is calculated by: the number of students aged 15 years and over enrolled with a tertiary education provider (see below) at any time during the year in formal qualifications (or programmes of study) of greater than 0.03 Equivalent Full-time Tertiary Study (EFTS). The data excludes all non-formal learning, on-job industry training and private training establishments which did not receive tuition subsidies.  Domestic students only are included. 
Modern Apprenticeship students who are studying courses that fit into the above definition are included in the statistics (typically, doing block courses at a polytechnic). If their learning is totally on the job they will not be included. 
Community education courses are excluded from the statistics.
Public tertiary education institutions include: universities, polytechnics and wänanga. Private tertiary education consists of: private providers receiving a tuition subsidy and private providers receiving a grant as a result of a decision by the Minister of Education. 
Limitations of data: The data in this edition relates to students enrolled at any time during the year (from 1994) and may differ from that published for earlier years.
Changes in the number of institutions, the status of institutions, and the types of courses offered affect comparisons over time.  
Data sources: Ministry of Education, Education Counts (2008) Provider-based enrolments, Table ENR4; Participation Rates, Table PPN1, downloaded from www.educationcounts.govt.nz on 4 June 2008 and customised data for 18–24 year olds. OECD (2008) OECD Stat: Student enrolments by age (Total tertiary education, All education programmes); Total population by age.
The data source uses a total response output method for ethnic data.
E10 Tertiary qualification completion
Definition/formulae: The number of 18–24 year olds who graduated or completed a qualification at a tertiary education institution in the year, as a percentage of the estimated number of 18–24 year olds resident in New Zealand averaged over the year ended 31 December.
Limitations of data: Changes in the number of institutions, the status of institutions, and the types of courses offered affect comparisons over time.
Data source: Ministry of Education, Tertiary Education Statistics, online at
http://educationcounts.govt.nz/statistics/tertiary_education/retention_and_achievement/Gaining_qualifications.xls
The data source uses a total response output method for ethnic data.
Economic security
ES1 Children without a parent in paid work
Definition: The proportion of children under 15 years whose resident parent(s) are not in paid work (either unemployed or not in the labour force).  For two-parent families, this means neither parent is employed.
Limitations of data: For two parent families, the data includes only those for which the labour force status of both parents is known and where both parents are present on census night. This results in a greater loss of information for two-parent families than for one-parent families. The effect on proportions is likely to be small. 
In the sources for the 1981–1996 data, a prioritised ethnicity classification was used. This assigns only one ethnicity to each person, with Mäori accorded the highest priority. Pacific children and European children with multiple ethnicities are therefore likely to be under-represented in the data for those years. For 2001 and 2006, children identified with more than one ethnic group are counted once in each group reported. For all years, the Asian ethnic group includes children with one or more ethnicities.
Data sources: Statistics New Zealand (1995) New Zealand Now – Children; Statistics New Zealand (1998) New Zealand Now – Children; and unpublished census data. Rates based on unpublished data derived by MSD. 
The data source uses a total response output method for ethnic data.
ES2 Children and young people with low incomes
Definition/formulae:  The income measure used is equivalised disposable household income after deducting housing costs. Equivalised disposable household income is the total income from all sources for all individuals in the household, after deducting tax, adding tax credits and adjusting for household size and composition. 
The adjustment for household size and composition is based on the 1988 Revised Jensen Equivalence Scale. 
Housing costs is the sum of annualised accommodation expenditure (includes mortgage payments (principal and interest), payments to local authorities, property rent, rent of a private dwelling, boarding house and student accommodation not paid with formal fees). In this indicator the Accommodation Supplement is counted as income.
Individuals are ranked by their household’s equivalised disposable income (after deducting housing costs).
The two low-income thresholds used are of the “fixed line” type, set at 50 percent and 60 percent of the 1998 median household disposable income, less 25 percent to allow for average housing costs. The two thresholds are held constant in real terms by an adjustment using the CPI. (See Perry (2008) for further details – especially pp 61–66 and Appendices 4 and 5.)
Individuals are grouped according to selected individual, family or household characteristics for the different analyses. For this indicator, family (or ‘economic family unit’) means one- or two-parent families with dependent children, whether living in a separate household or with others in a wider household.  
The methodology used to calculate the figures used in the international comparison section follows that used by the OECD and the EU: the income concept is equivalised household disposable income; equivalent household income is attributed to all individuals in the household; individuals are ranked by their attributed equivalent disposable income to get the median for that year; the threshold is set at 50 or 60 percent of this (contemporary) median, a “moving line” approach. There is no adjustment for housing costs. The equivalence scale for the OECD measure is the square root scale (ie equivalence scale elasticity = 0.5).  The equivalence scale for the EU measure counts the first adult as 1.0, second and subsequent adults as 0.5, and children as 0.3.
Limitations of data: The equivalised disposable income measure (whether before or after deducting housing costs) is taken as an indicator of a household’s access to economic resources or of its potential living standards, all else being equal. The measure is an imperfect indicator of actual living standards, which are influenced by factors other than current income and housing cost. People with the same current income level can have different standards of living as a result of their different net assets, the extent to which they receive assistance from others, and the extent to which they have atypical expenditure commitments (eg unusually high medical costs, debt repayments, transport costs and electricity costs). People who experience a lengthy period of very low income are likely to have different life outcomes to those who experience only a transient episode.
Since 1994 the trend for those of Other ethnicity has been volatile, but up to 2004 the trends for Māori and Pacific peoples have moved in the expected positive direction and were consistent with information from other data sources. Reporting by ethnicity in these circumstances was considered to be justified. The volatility of the trend for those of Other ethnicity was explained in a footnote. Analysis of the 2007 Household Economic Survey data shows a very large improvement for Pacific peoples and for those in the Other ethnic grouping compared with 2004, while for Māori there was no measurable change. These results do not align with the information sources used for a cross-check. The Ministry of Social Development considers it would be misleading to report these improvements, as the small overall sample numbers for these groups and the decreasing numbers below the low-income threshold combine to increase the sampling error to unacceptable levels. The children and young people with low incomes indicator, therefore, does not include a breakdown by ethnicity. 
Data sources: Statistics New Zealand Household Economic Survey. (Access to the data used in this study was provided by Statistics New Zealand under conditions designed to give effect to the confidentiality provisions of the Statistics Act 1975. The results presented in this study are the work of the Ministry of Social Development (see Perry B (2008) Household incomes in New Zealand: trends in indicators of inequality and hardship, 1982 to 2007).) Source for international comparisons: Förster M and Mira d’Ercole M (2007).
ES3 Unemployment
Definition/formulae: The youth unemployment rate is the number of 15–24 year olds in the labour force who are not employed but are actively seeking and available for paid work, expressed as a percentage of 15–24 year olds in the labour force. The labour force is defined as the sum of those who are employed and those who are unemployed.
The unemployed are defined in the Household Labour Force Survey as those who:
•	are without a paid job or unpaid work in a relative’s business
•	have actively sought work in the four weeks before completing the survey
•	are available to take work or have a new job to start within the next four weeks.

The employed are those who:
•	worked for pay or profit for one hour or more in the week before the survey 
•	worked unpaid in a relative’s business
•	have a job, but did not work in the week before the survey because of leave, sickness or industrial dispute.
“Actively seeking work” includes actions such as contacting an employer, asking friends or relatives about work opportunities, contacting an employment agency or contacting Work and Income. It excludes checking newspaper advertisements.
Limitations of data: Data are based on a sample survey and are therefore subject to sampling error. The definition of the unemployed excludes some people who regard themselves as unemployed, including the “discouraged unemployed” – those not meeting the criterion of “actively seeking work”. This group is classified as not being in the labour force.
The unemployment rate also excludes those who are currently employed part time but who are seeking to work more hours.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data. From the September quarter 2008, the Household Labour Force Survey will publish ethnicity data using the single/combination output method, marking a complete break in the ethnicity series. 
Data source: Household Labour Force Survey, Statistics New Zealand; OECD (2008), OECD.Stat, Online OECD Employment database.
ES4 Employment
Definition/formulae: The youth employment rate is the proportion of the population aged 15–24 years employed for at least one hour per week. The employed are those who worked for pay or profit for one hour or more in the week before the survey or who worked unpaid in a relative’s business or who have a job but did not work that week because of leave, sickness or industrial disputes.
Limitations of data: Data are based on a sample survey and are therefore subject to sampling error. The definition of employment includes those working one hour or more per week, so this will include some people who are likely to regard their status as closer to unemployment than to employment. For example, people on the unemployment benefit and searching for work but working a few hours a week will be counted as employed.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data. From the September quarter 2008, the Household Labour Force Survey will publish ethnicity data using the single/combination output method, marking a complete break in the ethnicity series. 
Data sources: Statistics New Zealand, Household Labour Force Survey; OECD (2008), OECD.Stat, Online OECD Employment database.
ES5 Hourly earnings from wage and salary jobs
Definition: Real median hourly earnings from all wages and salaries (before tax) for employees aged 15–24 years earning income from wage and salary jobs, as measured by the New Zealand Income Survey, an annual supplement to the Household Labour Force Survey. Inflation is measured using the Consumers Price Index All Groups plus Interest series for June quarters.
Limitations of data: Full non-response to the survey is imputed by Statistics New Zealand and typically the final dataset contains about 4,000 imputed person records. Hourly earnings relate to the number of hours usually worked and the usual earnings rather than the number of hours actually worked and the actual earnings. Proxy interviewing may be used to collect data on earnings under certain circumstances. Estimates from sample surveys are subject to error.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data, which is being discontinued. From the June 2009 year, the New Zealand Income Survey will publish ethnicity data using the single/combination output method, marking a complete break in the ethnicity series. 
Data source: Statistics New Zealand, New Zealand Income Survey, Information Release, June 1997 to June 2007 Table 10. CPI All Groups plus Interest series for June quarters. Ministry of Social Development: unpublished data from NZIS data set, June 1997–June 2007.
Safety
S1 Unintentional injury mortality rate
Definition/formulae: The number of children under 15 years of age who have died as a result of an unintentional injury, per 100,000 children under 15 years. 
Limitations of data: Because of changes in the classification of ethnicity in death registration data since September 1995, ethnicity data for 1996 and later years are not comparable with data from previous years.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.

Data sources:1981–1995, 2000, 2001, 2005 customised data from New Zealand Health Information Service (NZHIS); Ministry of Health (1999) Mortality and Demographic Data 1996, NZHIS, Table 4, pp 56–58; Ministry of Health (2000) Mortality and Demographic Data 1997, NZHIS, Table 4, pp 53–55; Ministry of Health (2001) Mortality and Demographic Data 1998, NZHIS, Table 4, pp 53–55; Ministry of Health (2003) Mortality and Demographic Data 1999, NZHIS, Table 4, pp 60–61; Ministry of Health (2006) Mortality and Demographic Data 2002–2003, NZHIS (website tables), Ministry of Health (2007) Mortality and Demographic Data 2004, NZHIS (website tables); Statistics New Zealand: mean population estimates for the year ended December, Total population by sex, 1991–2007, Mäori population, 1991–2007, downloaded from website 7 July 2008 www.stats.govt.nz/datasets/population/population-estimates.htm www.stats.govt.nz/tables/maori-popn-est-tables.htm
S2 Assault mortality
Definition/formulae: The number of people aged under 15 years and the number of young people aged 15–24 years who have died as a result of assault, per 100,000 people in each age group. 
The data was drawn from the following International Classification of Disease Codes: ICD-9, E960–E969, (up to 1999); ICD-10, X85–Y09 (from 2000).
Limitations of data: Because death from assault is a relatively rare event in statistical terms, rates can vary markedly from year to year. While five-year average annual rates help smooth the volatility, interpretation of trends can be difficult to discern over the short term.
Because of the changes in the classification of ethnicity in death-registration data in September 1995, ethnicity data for 1996 and later years is not comparable with data from before 1996.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data sources: New Zealand Health Information Service (NZHIS), Deaths from Homicide and injury purposely inflicted by other persons, ICD-9, E960–E969 (1996–1999), ICD-10, X85–Y09 (from 2000), for the Total, Māori and non-Māori populations; NZHIS population estimates.
S3 Bullying at school
Definition/formulae: The proportion of secondary school students aged 12–18 years who reported that they had been bullied at school, as measured by the Youth2000 Survey. According to the definition in the survey, bullying occurs when a student or group of students say nasty and unpleasant things to another student, or the student is kicked, threatened, pushed or shoved around, or when a group of students completely ignore somebody and leave them out on purpose.

Youth2000 was a nationally-representative youth health and wellbeing survey administered during the 2001 school year using laptop computers.  A total of 9,699 students from 114 New Zealand secondary schools were surveyed, representing approximately 4 percent of all New Zealand secondary school students. (For further information on the survey, see the technical details for the indicator on Witnessing Violence in the Home.) 
Limitations of data: Estimates from sample surveys are subject to error. 
Differences between groups should be interpreted with caution. The large sample size means that even small differences may be statistically significant. 
Ethnic comparisons should be interpreted with caution. The classification of young people into discrete ethnic groups is not robust and may misclassify some participants. Comparisons between ethnic groups, while adjusting for some factors, may incorrectly lead to the assumption that remaining differences are due to ethnicity. There may, however, be remaining unaccounted for confounding factors that contribute to any perceived difference.
The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Data sources: Adolescent Health Research Group (2003) New Zealand Youth: A Profile of their Health and Wellbeing, Tables 1–4, p 53; Fleming TM, Watson PD, Robinson E, Ameratunga S, Dixon R, Clark TC, Crengle S (2007) Violence and New Zealand Young People: Findings of Youth2000 – A National Health and Wellbeing Survey. Auckland: The University of Auckland. Downloaded from the Youth2000 website: www.youth2000.ac.nz/pdf/violence-nz-yp.pdf ; Currie C, Roberts C, Morgan A, Smith R, Settertobulte W, Samdal O, and Barnekow Rasmussen V (eds) (2004) Young People’s Health in Context. Health Behaviour in School-aged Children (HBSC) study: international report from the 2001/2002 survey. Downloaded from the HBSC website: www.hbsc.org/publications/reports.html
S4 Criminal victimisation
Definition/formulae: The proportion of the population aged 15–24 who have been the victim of one or more incidents of criminal offending in 2005 as measured by the New Zealand Crime and Safety Survey 2006 (NZCASS). The survey covers people in private households. It does not cover commercial victimisation, "victimless" crimes (such as drug or alcohol abuse), or crimes against people under 15 years old.
Confrontational crime is defined in the NZCASS Key Findings report as assaults, robbery and threats to the person or personal property.
Limitations of data: Changes in survey design limit the comparisons that can be made between NZCASS and the two earlier surveys: the 1996 and 2001 New Zealand National Survey of Crime Victims.
Victimisation surveys are subject to a number of methodological limitations such as selective recounting and differences between groups in willingness to report offences, particularly offences of a sexual or domestic nature where the offender is known. There are also limitations in asking people to remember victimisation incidents and to locate them accurately in time.
A victimisation survey will give a higher count of crime because it counts unreported crime. Thirty-two percent of all NZCASS offences became known to the police. Offences regarded as serious were more likely to be reported, but there was a wide variation between offence types, with 84 percent of vehicle thefts being reported compared with 9 percent of sexual offences.
The variables related with victimisation overlap. These victimisation findings do not control for other risk factors that are associated with high victimisation, such as living in more deprived areas and being unemployed.
Data source: Mayhew, P and Reilly, J (2007) New Zealand Crime and Safety Survey 2006: Key Findings.
S5 Fear of crime
Definition/formulae: The proportion of people aged 15–24 who reported that fear of crime had a moderate or high impact on their quality of life (scoring its effect at 4 or higher on a scale from 0–10, where 0 is no effect and 10 is total effect), as measured by the New Zealand Crime and Safety Survey, 2006 (NZCASS).  
The data comes from the survey question “How much is your own quality of life affected by fear of crime, on a scale from 0 to 10, where 0 is no effect and 10 is total effect on your quality of life?”.
Limitations of data:  The question elicits a subjective assessment of the extent to which fear of crime affects respondents’ quality of life, which is also subjectively defined.   While the question demonstrated an ability to differentiate between groups, it is not a reliable measure of actual status of respondents. Also, although the results reflect people’s perceptions of their own situation in a general and ongoing way, they may be influenced by significant events and subject to fluctuation over time.    
Data source: Mayhew, P and Reilly, J (2007) Community Safety: Findings from the New Zealand Crime and Safety Survey 2006.  Wellington: Ministry of Justice. 
S6 Road casualties
Definition/formulae: Number of deaths caused by motor vehicles per 100,000 population under 25 years. Number of persons injured as a result of motor vehicle crashes as reported to the police, per 100,000 population under 25 years. Pedestrians or cyclists killed or injured by motor vehicles are included.
The data was drawn from the following International Classification of Diseases codes: ICD-9, 810–819 (1996–1999); ICD-10, V01–V89 (2000).
Limitations of data: The collection of ethnicity data changed during 1995 for both mortality and hospitalisation data. For mortality data, the basis of ethnicity has changed from a biological concept to a concept of self-identification; in mid-1995 hospitalisation data recorded multiple ethnic groups, whereas previously only one ethnic group could be recorded. Consequently, a comparison of 1996 ethnic-specific data with previous years is misleading: 1996 is the start of a new time series for ethnic-specific data. The data source uses a prioritised output method for ethnic data.
Because of a revision of the International Classification of Diseases, rates for 2000 are not comparable with rates for 1996–1999. 
Data sources: Ministry of Transport; Land Transport New Zealand; New Zealand Health Information Service; Statistics New Zealand, 2006-base resident population estimates; OECD (2008) International Traffic Safety Data and Analysis Group (IRTAD), IRTAD Database Statistics:  Selected year 2006 road traffic data [February 2008], downloaded 13 March 2008 from http://cemt.org/IRTAD/IRTADPublic/we2.html 
Road casualty data comes from two main sources: injury data from the traffic crash reports completed by police officers who attend the fatal and injury crashes; and mortality and hospitalisation data from the New Zealand Health Information Service (NZHIS). Ethnic-specific rates of death or hospitalisation are only available from NZHIS.
Civil and political rights
CP1 Voter turnout
Definition/formulae: The proportion of young people aged 18–24 years who cast a vote in a New Zealand general election, as estimated by the New Zealand Election Study; and the proportion of young people aged 18–29 years who are registered on the electoral roll and are eligible to vote. To be eligible to vote in New Zealand, a person must be at least 18 years old and meet residential and certain other criteria.
Limitations of data: The voter turnout estimate in this indicator has been derived from the percentage of respondents to NZES post-election surveys who did not vote (based on inspection of the marked rolls for all elections but 1987, where the data is based on respondents’ self-report). The data is also weighted by demographics and vote, correcting for nonresponse bias that always under-represents nonvoters. The estimates are subject to remaining sampling error. However, all of the election age-group cross-tabulations indicate statistically significant differences at a 99 per cent confidence interval, except for 2005, which is statistically significant at 95 per cent.
In the Regional Differences section, the October 2007 enrolment figures refer to the number of electors registered on the general electoral roll for that electorate. The estimated population used for the denominator is not the same as that used in the calculation of national enrolment rates, which is adjusted to exclude those who do not meet voter eligibility criteria.
Data sources: 2005 New Zealand Election Study, unpublished data; Electoral Enrolment Centre, Enrolment Statistics: Comparison of estimated eligible voting population to enrolled electors for the whole of New Zealand on writ day, by age group; Comparison of estimated eligible voting population to enrolled electors (general roll) for each electorate, age group 18–24 years, as at 31 October 2007.
Justice
J1 Police apprehensions of 14–16 year olds
Definition/formulae: The number of Police apprehensions of 14–16 year olds for all offences except non-imprisonable traffic offences, as a proportion of all 14–16 year olds. An apprehension for an offence indicates a formal contact between a young person and the Police in relation to an offence that has occurred. Apprehension in relation to an offence is not the same as being charged with or convicted for that offence.
Limitations of data: This measure overstates the true rate of apprehensions of youth of this age, because some individuals may have been apprehended for more than one offence.
The measurement of ethnicity data in justice statistics is subject to problems in the method of collection: “Official Police practice is for ethnicity to be self-identified by the offender (and then coded into the race categories: Caucasian, Māori, Pacific Island, Negro [sic], Indian, Asian, and Other). However, in practice, ethnicity is likely to be recorded by a mixture of self-identification and recorder judgement. Recording ethnicity by means other than self-identification can lead to people being classified in the wrong ethnic groups. Also, no allowance is made for people wanting to specify more than one ethnic group.”    
Data sources: Spier P (2001) Conviction and Sentencing of Offenders in New Zealand: 1991 to 2000, Table 7.1; Spier P (2002) Conviction and Sentencing of Offenders in New Zealand: 1992 to 2001, Table 7.1; Ministry of Justice, unpublished data; Chong J (2007). Youth Justice Statistics in New Zealand: 1992–2006, Tables 3.3 and 3.4.
J2 Cases proved in the Youth Court
Definition/formulae: The number of cases proved in the Youth Court, excluding cases involving non-imprisonable traffic offence cases, as a proportion (per 10,000) of all 14–16 year olds.
Limitations of data: The rate overstates the propensity of 14–16 year olds to have a case proved in the Youth Court because the numerator includes some young people who are aged over 16 at the time of sentencing, although they were aged between 14 and 16 years at the time of the offence. Also, individuals who have had more than one case proved in the same year will be counted more than once.
The measurement of ethnicity data in justice statistics is subject to problems in the method of collection: “Official Police practice is for ethnicity to be self-identified by the offender (and then coded into the race categories: Caucasian, Māori, Pacific Island, Negro [sic], Indian, Asian, and Other). However, in practice, ethnicity is likely to be recorded by a mixture of self-identification and recorder judgement. Recording ethnicity by means other than self-identification can lead to people being classified in the wrong ethnic groups. Also, no allowance is made for people wanting to specify more than one ethnic group.”    
In 2004 the system used by the courts to log cases was updated from the Law Enforcement System (LES) to the Case Management System (CMS). The new system recorded a higher number of cases and so data collected before and after the changeover is not strictly comparable.
Data sources: Chong J (2007) Youth Justice Statistics in New Zealand: 1992–2006; Statistics New Zealand, Estimated National Ethnic Population by age and sex at 30 June 2006, downloaded using Table Builder, www.stats.govt.nz/tables/nat-pop-est-tables.htm
Cultural identity
CI1 Te reo Māori speakers
Definition/formulae: The proportion of Māori children under 15 years and Māori young people aged 15–24 who can speak te reo Māori, as recorded in the New Zealand Census of Population and Dwellings 2006. The ability to speak te reo Māori is defined in the Census as being able to hold a conversation about a lot of everyday things in the Māori language.
Limitations of data: The data relies on self-reporting rather than measuring the actual level of fluency in the population. The census data comes from a single question about conversational language ability. More detailed information on the level of fluency among Māori language speakers is available from two nationwide surveys done in 2001 and 2006. This data is not directly comparable with the census data because of differences in the samples and methodology. For example the Māori language surveys used face-to-face interviews, asked a range of questions about language skill, and asked respondents to place themselves on a five-category proficiency scale.  
Data sources: Statistics New Zealand, unpublished census data; Te Puni Kōkiri, unpublished results from the Survey of the Health of the Mäori Language 2001 and 2006.

CI2 Language retention
Definition/formulae: The proportion of people who can speak the ‘first language’ (excluding English) of their ethnic group, for ethnic groups (other than Māori) with an established resident population in New Zealand, as recorded in the 2006 Population Census.  Ability to speak a language is defined as being able to hold an everyday conversation in that language. ‘First language’ refers to an indigenous language associated with a given ethnicity rather than the first language of an individual.
Limitations of data:  While a direct link can be usually be made between a language and an ethnic group, this is not always the case. Some ethnicities are associated with several languages and one language can span several ethnicities.  While English is an official language of some groups selected in these tables, the Census does not distinguish between different varieties of the English language. English has therefore been excluded as a first language within these tables.  Because both the ethnic group and language spoken census variables allow more than one response, there may be some individuals who appear in more than one ethnic group category.
Data source: Statistics New Zealand, unpublished data from the Census of Population and Dwellings, 2001, 2006. Total response output method has been used for ethnic data.
Social connectedness
SC1 Telephone/mobile access in the home
Definition/formulae: The number of children under 18 years and young people aged 18–24 years living in households with access to telephones (either landline or cellphones), as a percentage of all children and young people.
Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 1986, 1991, 1996, 2001, 2006, unpublished data. Total response output method has been used for ethnic data.
SC2 Internet access in the home
Definition/formulae: The number of children under 18 years and young people aged 18–24 years living in households with access to the internet, as a percentage of all children and young people.
Limitations of data: Census data refers to internet access in the dwelling of usual residence only. It cannot provide information on internet access at home for children who live some of the time in other households (such as children of separated parents with shared care arrangements). Many children and young people have access to the Internet through schools and tertiary education institutions.
Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, 2001, 2006, unpublished data; OECD database: http://pisadata.acer.edu.au/2006. Total response output method has been used for ethnic data.
Environment
EN1 Children living with a parent who smokes
Definition/formulae: The proportion of dependent children under the age of 18 living with at least one parent who is a regular smoker (smoking one or more cigarettes per day).
Limitations of data: The data cannot show the extent to which children living with a parent who smokes are actually exposed to cigarette smoke. Children living in a household with other adults who smoke may be exposed to cigarette smoke at home regardless of whether their parents smoke. 
The data used in this indicator excludes a number of children for whom there was no smoking status information available for one or both parents in two-parent families, or for the sole parent in one-parent families. For children in one-parent families, information on parental smoking status is only available for the parent with whom the child usually lives. 
The census ethnicity question has changed over time, affecting comparability.  
Data source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, unpublished data. Total response output method has been used for ethnic data.
EN2 Household crowding
Definition/formulae: The Canadian National Occupancy standard sets the bedroom requirements of a household according to the following compositional criteria:
•	There should be no more than two people per bedroom
•	Parents or couples share a bedroom
•	Children under 5 years, either of the same or of the opposite sex, may reasonably share a bedroom
•	Children under 18 years of the same sex may reasonably share a bedroom
•	A child aged 5–17 years should not share a bedroom with one under 5 of the opposite sex
•	Single adults 18 years and over and any unpaired children require a separate bedroom.
Limitations of data: There is no contemporary official statistic or index of household crowding in New Zealand. There are many frameworks or models used in many countries for analysing the incidence of crowding. It is unlikely any single measure of crowding could adequately summarise such a complex and multi-faceted issue as crowding.
There is no definitive evidence that crowding leads to negative social outcomes, but there are associations between living in crowded circumstances and negative outcomes. The mechanisms by which these outcomes result are not clear.

The Canadian Crowding Index is not an objective index of crowding. The extent to which household members will perceive themselves as living in crowded circumstances is dependent on many factors including social and cultural expectations. Furthermore, it cannot be assumed households requiring one or more additional bedrooms (based on the Canadian index) will suffer negative social outcomes.
The Canadian Crowding Index is used here as it is both sensitive to household size and composition. The measure sets a bedroom requirement for households based on precise criteria. 
Data sources: Statistics New Zealand (1998) New Zealand Now – Housing, pp 56–63; Statistics New Zealand, unpublished data from the 1986, 1991, 2001 and 2006 population censuses. Total response output method has been used for ethnic data.