Children and Young People: Indicators of Wellbeing in New Zealand 2008

Education

Children of parents without educational qualifications
Participation in early childhood education
School truancy
Reading literacy at age 15
Mathematical literacy at age 15
Scientific literacy at age 15
Retention of students in senior secondary schools
School leavers with higher qualifications
Participation in tertiary education
Tertiary qualification completion

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The other sections and the appendices of the Children and Young People: Indicators of Wellbeing in New Zealand 2008 can be found at www.msd.govt.nz

Education
Desired outcomes
All children and young people obtain the knowledge and skills to enable them to be full participants in society.
Introduction
Education is both a human right and means of realising other human rights. Educational achievement is associated with better health, higher income and living standards, and a longer life. Knowledge and skills are important for gaining access to services and for understanding and exercising political rights.

The desired outcome for education is consistent with Articles 28 and 29 of UNCROC, which recognise the right of children and young people to equal access to the kind of education that develops their personalities and abilities to their fullest potential and encourages a respect for the rights of others and for the environment. 

Educational achievement is not just a function of an individual’s abilities and aspirations, but is influenced strongly by socioeconomic circumstances. Poor social circumstances in early life are associated with lower educational achievement. The long-term social and economic costs of educational failure are high. Those without the skills to participate socially and economically are likely to generate higher costs for health and social welfare systems. A fair and inclusive education system that extends the benefits of education to all enhances social cohesion.

In New Zealand, education is compulsory for all children aged between six and 16 years, although in practice most children start school on their fifth birthday.
Indicators
There are 10 indicators in the education domain. They cover a range of child and youth outcomes from contact with the formal education system, from early childhood education to tertiary level.

The first is an indicator of the home learning environment. Research shows that parental education, particularly the mother’s level of education, is linked to children’s participation and achievement in education. Children whose parents have no educational qualifications may therefore be disadvantaged.

Participation in early childhood education enhances child development and future ability to learn. Quality early childhood programmes can help narrow the achievement gap between children from low-income families and those from more advantaged families.

School truancy is an indicator of school disengagement. Students who truant from school not only miss out on class work, but also run an increased risk of alienation from the education system and dropping out of school. 

There are three indicators on literacy – reading, mathematical and scientific – at age 15. In each of these, literacy is defined broadly as a means of developing knowledge and the potential to participate effectively in society. They can also be seen as indicators of the quality of education systems and equality of educational outcomes.

Retention of students in senior secondary schools is an indicator of school engagement. Students who leave school early with few qualifications are at a much greater risk of unemployment or vulnerability in the labour force and of having low incomes. 

School leavers with higher qualifications is an indicator of the extent to which young people are gaining knowledge and skills that will serve as the foundation for higher learning and training opportunities, as well as the preparation for direct entry into the labour market. 
The last two indicators are participation in tertiary education and tertiary qualification completion. The tertiary education sector provides pathways for a diverse range of learners, from certificate level courses through to research based postgraduate degrees. Changes in participation and achievement in tertiary education in the core age group of 18–24 years show the extent to which young New Zealanders are developing the skills needed for a modern knowledge economy.

Children of parents without educational qualifications
Definition
The proportion of dependent children under the age of 18 who live without parents with formal educational qualifications. For children in one-parent families this means that the parent with whom the child usually lives has no qualifications; for children in two-parent families it means that neither parent has qualifications.  
Relevance
New Zealand and international research shows that parental education is linked to children’s participation and achievement in education. In particular, the mother’s level of education is one of the most important factors influencing children’s reading levels and other school achievements. Parents with higher levels of education tend to provide the kinds of home learning environments and varied experiences that facilitate children’s success at school. Children whose parents have no educational qualifications may therefore be disadvantaged. Parents who have difficulties with literacy are more likely to exert a positive influence on their children’s educational achievement when they are able to enhance their own skills.
Current level and trends 
At the time of the 2006 Census, 12 percent of dependent children under the age of 18 lived in families in which no parent had a formal educational qualification. This was considerably lower than the figure in 1996 (23 percent) and 1986 (27 percent). 
Ethnic differences
Māori and Pacific children were the most likely to be living without parents with formal qualifications (25 percent and 23 percent respectively in 2006). European and Asian children had similar proportions in this situation (9 percent and 8 percent respectively), and both were lower than the national average, while the proportion for children of Other ethnicities (14 percent) was slightly above the national average. For children of the four major ethnic groups, there was a marked improvement over the 20 years from 1986 to 2006. 

Figure E1.1 Proportion of dependent children under 18 years living without parents with educational qualifications, by ethnic group, 1986–2006
Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, unpublished data
Differences by family type
Children in one-parent families were much more likely than those in two-parent families to be living without a parent with qualifications (31 percent and 6 percent respectively in 2006). While the proportion of children in one-parent families in this situation almost halved between 1986 and 2006, this was not as great as the fall for children in two-parent families. Therefore, the disparity between children in one and two-parent families in this indicator widened over that period. 

In both one and two-parent families, Māori and Pacific children were far more likely than others to be living without a parent with educational qualifications.

The differences and trends are similar when looking particularly at mothers’ qualifications, a factor found in research to be most influential on children’s educational achievement. Overall, the proportion of children living with a mother with no educational qualifications fell from 44 percent to 18 percent between 1986 and 2006. But the fall was proportionately greater for children living with a mother in a two-parent family (from 42 percent to 15 percent), than for those living with a sole mother (from 58 to 30 percent). In 2006, children living with a sole mother were twice as likely as those living with a partnered mother to have a mother without educational qualifications, an increase from 1.4 times as likely in 1986.

Figure E1.2 Proportion of dependent children under 18 years living with mothers with no educational qualifications, by family type, 1986–2006
Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, unpublished data

The falling trend in the proportion of children living with a mother with no formal qualifications was experienced across all ethnic groups. For Māori, it fell from 67 percent to 32 percent; for Pacific peoples, from 63 percent to 30 percent; for Asians, from 45 percent to 12 percent; for Europeans, from 39 percent to 15 percent and for other ethnic groups, from 25 percent to 20 percent. 

Table E1.1  Proportion (%) of dependent children under 18 years living with parents with no educational qualifications, by family type and ethnic group, 1986–2006
 Year, ethnic group of child
 	One-parent family	Two-parent family	Total	
	Father with no qualifi-cations	Mother with no qualifi-cations	Total parents with no qualifi-cations	Mother with no qualifi-cations	Both parents with no qualifi-cations	Mother with no qualifi-cations	No parent with qualifi-cations	
1986								
European	40	50	49	37	17	39	21	
Māori	68	74	73	65	43	67	51	
Pacific peoples	65	68	68	62	41	63	47	
Asian	47	54	53	44	26	45	29	
Other	30	36	36	22	11	25	16	
Total  	50	58	57	42	21	44	27	
1996								
European	43	43	43	24	10	28	17	
Māori	70	64	65	49	30	54	44	
Pacific peoples	68	63	63	56	38	58	46	
Asian	36	42	41	31	17	33	20	
Other	38	36	37	24	12	27	17	
Total  	52	51	51	30	15	34	23	
2006								
European	30	26	26	12	4	15	9	
Māori	50	40	41	27	13	32	25	
Pacific peoples	45	37	38	27	15	30	23	
Asian	19	19	19	11	6	12	8	
Other	24	31	30	17	9	20	14	
Total  	35	30	31	15	6	18	12	
Source: Statistics New Zealand, Census of Population and Dwellings, unpublished data

Participation in early childhood education
Definition
The number of enrolments of children aged 3 and 4 years in early childhood centres or home-based education programmes as a proportion of all 3 and 4 year olds. 

The measure includes all forms of organised and sustained centre and home-based programmes designed to foster learning and emotional and social development in children. The measure overestimates participation because children enrolled in more than one early childhood centre will be double-counted. Information from an alternative measure which avoids double counting – the proportion of Year 1 students who have previously participated in early childhood education – is also included.
Relevance
Evidence from New Zealand and international research shows that the early childhood years are vital to a child’s development and future ability to learn. Quality early childhood programmes prepare young children socially, physically and academically for entry into primary education and can help narrow the achievement gap between children from low-income families and those from more advantaged families.
Current level and trends
As at 1 July 2007, the “apparent” early childhood education participation rate was 97 percent for 3 year olds and 102 percent for 4 year olds, confirming that some children attend more than one service. These figures represent a substantial increase from 43 percent and 73 percent respectively in 1986. Much of the growth in participation in early childhood education occurred in the five years between 1986 and 1991, with slower growth in subsequent years.

Figure E2.1 Early childhood education ‘apparent’ participation rate, 3 and 4 year olds, 1986–2007

Sources: Ministry of Education; Ministry of Social Development
Note: These figures overestimate the true participation rate.  Rates in excess of 100 percent are possible because children can be enrolled in more than one service.
Sex differences
Participation in early childhood education participation does not appear to vary by sex: boys make up just over half (51 percent) of all enrolments, the same proportion as in the population at that age.
Participation by type of early childhood education service
In 2007, childcare centres (44 percent) and kindergartens (37 percent) had the largest number of enrolments of 3 and 4 year olds in early childhood education. Much smaller numbers of children were enrolled in playcentres (5 percent) and köhanga reo (4 percent).
Prior participation in early childhood education
The prior participation rate is an alternative measure that avoids double counting. The percentage of new school entrants who have previously participated in early childhood education services has increased over the last seven years, from 91 percent in July 2000 to 95 percent in July 2007. 

Ethnic differences
New Zealand European children are the most likely to have attended an early childhood education service before entering primary school: 98 percent compared with 96 percent of Asian, 91 percent of Māori and 84 percent of Pacific Year 1 students in 2007. From 2000 to 2004, the prior participation rate for both Māori and Pacific new entrants increased faster than the rate for New Zealand European new entrants, narrowing the difference between these groups.  However, since 2004, the growth in the rate for Māori has slowed, and there has been a slight decline in the proportion of Pacific new entrants who had attended early childhood education services before starting school.

Table E2.1 Early childhood education attendance by Year 1 students, by ethnic group, as at 1 July 2000–2007
Year	NZ European	Māori	Pacific	Asian	Other	Total	
2000	95.4	84.8	76.1	89.2	83.0	91.0	
2001	96.0	85.3	76.3	89.8	84.1	91.4	
2002	96.6	86.5	79.4	92.1	86.6	92.3	
2003	97.4	88.4	83.4	92.4	88.9	93.6	
2004	97.6	89.3	84.7	94.1	89.4	94.1	
2005	97.7	89.9	84.5	95.1	89.9	94.3	
2006	98.0	89.9	84.2	96.0	91.7	94.5	
2007	98.2	90.6	84.0	96.0	93.6	94.7	
Source: Ministry of Education
Note: These figures exclude cases for which attendance was unknown.
Socio-economic differences
Year 1 children in low decile schools (those that draw their students from communities with the highest degree of socio-economic disadvantage) are much less likely to have attended an early childhood education service than children in high decile schools.  In 2007, only 83 percent of new entrants in decile 1 schools had previously attended early childhood education services, compared with 97 percent in decile 6 schools and 99 percent in decile 10 schools. 
Regional differences
In 2007, prior participation in early childhood education was highest in the Canterbury region (99 percent) and Otago (98 percent), and lowest in Northland (91 percent), Auckland and Gisborne (both 92 percent).
International comparison
New Zealand children have a relatively high rate of participation in early childhood education, ranking sixth equal (with Iceland, 2003) out of 29 OECD countries in the proportion of four year olds enrolled in childcare and early childhood education in 2004, or the most recent year. The New Zealand rate of 95.1 percent was considerably higher than the OECD median of 83.5 percent and higher than the rates of the United Kingdom (92.0 percent), Australia (64.6 percent in 2005) and the United States (64.1 percent in 2005).

School truancy
Definition
The school truancy rate in this indicator is defined as the average (mean) daily number of unjustified absences from school per 100 students enrolled. Unjustified absences are absences for a half-day or more that are not explained to the satisfaction of the school. Students who were unjustifiably absent from school for a half-day or more on three or more days in the week of the survey are defined as frequent truants. Both the unjustified absence rate and the frequent truancy rate have been standardised by ethnic group, school decile, sex and year level. The data comes from the Ministry of Education’s Attendance Survey, conducted during one week in August 2004 and 2006.

Relevance
Students who are truant from school not only miss out on class work, but also run an increased risk of alienation from the education system and dropping out of school. Longitudinal studies of Christchurch and Dunedin children have found truancy to be a strong predictor of violence, and predictive of delinquency, substance abuse, suicidal risk, unemployment and early parenting. Linkages between truancy and crime are of considerable concern. Frequent truants are the most likely to suffer long term problems.
Current level and trends
In 2006, the overall unjustified absence rate, standardised by ethnic group, school decile, sex and year level, was 2.3 percent. This was slightly higher than the rate in 2004 (2.1 percent).

The standardised frequent truancy rate in 2006 was 1.1 percent, slightly above the 2004 rate of 1.0 percent.
Age and sex differences
Age is a factor in truancy. Unjustified absence rates for primary and intermediate school-age children (Year 1 to Year 8) are substantially lower than those for secondary school-age students. For secondary school-age students, the percentage of unjustified absences increases with years at school.  The increase in the rate between 2004 and 2006 occurred at Year 9 and above.

Figure E3.1 Standardised unjustified absence rate by Year Level, 2004 and 2006
Source: Ministry of Education
Notes: 
(1) This measure relates to the number of days that individuals truant.
(2) The rate has been standardised by ethnic group, sex and school decile.
(3) Absences in Year 13, the last year of school, are difficult to interpret without additional information.

In general, truancy rates for boys and girls were very similar at all levels below secondary school. From Year 10, girls were slightly more likely than boys to be unjustifiably absent.

When standardised by year level, the unjustified absence rate remained slightly higher for females (2.4 percent) than for males (2.3 percent) in 2006. The frequent truancy rate was also slightly higher for females (1.2 percent) than males (1.1 percent).  
Ethnic differences
Ethnicity is a significant factor with regard to truancy from school. In 2006, standardised unjustified absence rates for Māori and Pacific students (5.0 percent and 4.2 percent, respectively) were 3–4 times higher than the rates for New Zealand European students (1.3 percent) and Asian students (1.2 percent). 

Frequent truancy is more common for Māori and Pacific male and female students than for their New Zealand European or Asian counterparts. Māori students (2.7 percent) were 4.5 times as likely as New Zealand European students (0.6 percent) or Asian students (0.5 percent) to be frequent truants, while the rate for Pacific students (2.0 percent) was 3.5 times higher.

While females overall had slightly higher truancy rates than males, Pacific and Asian ethnic group males had higher rates than their female counterparts.

Table E3.1 Standardised truancy rates, by ethnic group and sex, 2006
	Unjustified absence rate (1)	Frequent truancy rate (2)	
Ethnic group	Male	Female	Total	Male	Female	Total	
Māori	4.8	5.1	5.0	2.5	2.8	2.7	
Pacific	4.3	4.0	4.2	2.1	1.9	2.0	
Asian	1.3	1.0	1.2	0.5	0.4	0.5	
New Zealand European	1.3	1.3	1.3	0.6	0.6	0.6	
Total	2.3	2.4	2.3	1.1	1.2	1.1	
Source: Ministry of Education 
Notes:
(1) This measure relates to the number of days that individuals truant.
(2) This measure relates to the number of individuals that truant.
(3) Percentages have been standardised by Year Level.
(4) Total includes ‘Other’ ethnic group.

Truancy rates increased for all ethnic groups between 2004 and 2006. The largest growth occurred for Māori students, with an increase of 17 percent in the percentage of unjustified absences.
Socio-economic differences
There is a clear gradient in truancy rates by socio-economic quintile of school. In 2006, students from schools in the lowest quintile (deciles 1 and 2), which draw their students from communities with the highest degree of socio-economic disadvantage, were over 6 times more likely to be frequent truants than students in the highest quintile (deciles 9 and 10). These differences by school quintile were evident for students in each of the main ethnic groups.

Table E3.2 Standardised frequent truancy rate, by ethnic group and school socio-economic quintile, 2006
SES Quintile	Ethnic Group	
	Māori	Pacific	Asian	NZ European	Total	
1 (low SES)	3.7	2.7	0.8	1.4	2.8	
2	3.0	2.2	0.8	0.8	1.6	
3	2.1	1.0	0.4	0.6	0.9	
4	1.5	1.1	0.4	0.5	0.6	
5 (High SES)	1.0	0.7	0.3	0.4	0.5	
Source: Ministry of Education 
Notes:
(1) Schools in the lowest quintile (quintile 1) draw their students from communities with the highest degree of socio-economic disadvantage.
(2) This measure relates to the number of individuals that truant.
(3) As age was not provided in the Attendance Survey data, truancy percentages have been standardised by Year Level.
Regional differences
Truancy varies widely by region. In 2006, the standardised unjustified absence rate was highest in the Gisborne region (4.0 percent), followed by Northland (3.6 percent) and Bay of Plenty (3.1 percent). The lowest rates were in Otago (1.2 percent) and the Tasman region (1.4 percent), although in Otago, a majority of schools were closed on the Tuesday of the survey week because of snow. The rankings were similar for frequent truancy, with the highest rates in Gisborne (2.0 percent), Northland (1.8 percent) and Bay of Plenty (1.6 percent) and the lowest rates in Otago (0.4 percent) and Tasman (0.7 percent).

Reading literacy at age 15
Definition
The mean scores for 15-year-old New Zealand students based on the international reading literacy scales set by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study in 2006. The combined reading literacy scale is derived from three separate scales that measure relative performance in retrieving information, interpreting texts, and “reflecting on and evaluating texts” (the ability of students to relate what they have read to their knowledge, ideas and experience).
Relevance
According to the definition used in the PISA 2006 survey, “reading literacy is understanding, using and reflecting on written texts in order to achieve one’s goals, to develop one’s knowledge and potential, and to participate in society”. Mean performance scores are typically used to measure the quality of educational systems, while the distribution of scores is an important indicator of the equality of educational outcomes.
Current level and trends
In 2006, the combined mean reading literacy score for 15-year-old New Zealand students was 521, significantly higher than the OECD mean of 492.

Figure E4.1 Mean reading literacy scores of 15-year-old students in OECD countries, PISA 2006

Source: OECD (2007d), Table T6.1c 

New Zealand had one of the widest distributions of reading literacy scores, with a gap of 344 points between the 5th and 95th percentiles, compared with an OECD average gap of 324 points. A wider spread of scores indicates a higher level of disparity between high and low achievers within a country.

New Zealand had 16 percent of its students achieving at Level 5, the top level of proficiency, compared with the OECD average of 9 percent. At the other end of the scale, 15 percent of New Zealand students scored at Level 1 or below, compared with an average of 20 percent across all OECD countries.

The achievement of New Zealand students in 2006 was similar to that recorded in 2000 when the mean reading literacy score of 15-year-old students was 529 (compared to an OECD average of 500), with 19 percent at the top level of proficiency and 14 percent at the lowest level.
Sex differences
Girls scored higher than boys on the combined reading literacy score, achieving a mean score of 539 compared with 502 for boys – a difference of 37 points. Girls were much more likely than boys to achieve at the highest level of proficiency (19 percent compared with 12 percent). At the other end of the scale, girls were much less likely than boys to be unable to demonstrate proficiency above Level 1 (10 percent compared with 20 percent).

No change in boys’ performance in reading literacy was observed between 2000 and 2006.  Although girls’ performance decreased by 14 score points over this period, there was no significant change in the difference in performance between girls and boys.  
Ethnic differences
Pākehā (European) students scored significantly higher, on average, than students from other ethnic groups, with an overall reading literacy score of 542. Asian students (528) also scored much higher than the OECD mean but significantly below European students. Māori students (477) scored higher than Pacific students (461) and both these groups were below the OECD mean.
International comparison
New Zealand 15-year-old students performed very strongly on the combined literacy reading scale, with a mean score of 521 significantly above the OECD average of 492. Only two OECD countries – Korea (556) and Finland (547) – achieved significantly better results. New Zealand’s mean score was similar to those of Canada (527) and Ireland (517) and significantly higher than those of Australia (513) and the United Kingdom (495).

While girls performed better than boys, New Zealand boys and girls both performed well, on average, in international comparisons. The mean score for New Zealand girls was 539 compared with the OECD mean of 511, while the mean score for New Zealand boys was 502 compared with the OECD mean of 473.

The spread of reading literacy scores (the gap between the 5th and 95th percentile) was wider for New Zealand students (344 points) than for students in Australia (307),  Canada (316) and the United Kingdom (335), although in the latter case the difference may not be significant.

New Zealand had the third largest proportion (16 percent) of 15-year-old students achieving at the highest level of reading proficiency (Level 5), after Korea (22 percent) and Finland (17 percent).  

Across the OECD, 20 percent of students did not achieve beyond Level 1.  The New Zealand proportion of 15 percent was statistically similar to Canada (13 percent) and Ireland (12 percent).  Finland (5 percent) and Korea (6 percent) had the lowest proportions not achieving beyond Level 1.

Mathematical literacy at age 15
Definition
The mean scores for 15-year-old New Zealand students based on the international mathematics literacy scale set by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study in 2006. The combined mathematical literacy scale is derived from measurement of four content areas: quantity (related to number), change and relationships (related to algebra), space and shape (related to geometry) and uncertainty (related to statistics).
Relevance
PISA 2006 defines mathematical literacy as “an individual’s capacity to identify and understand the role that mathematics plays in the world, to make well-founded judgements and to use and engage with mathematics in ways that meet the needs of that individual’s life as a constructive, concerned and reflective citizen”. As with reading literacy, the definition revolves around the wider use of mathematics in people’s lives rather than being limited to mechanical operations.
Current level and trends
In 2006, the mean score in combined mathematical literacy for 15-year-old New Zealand students overall was 522, significantly above the OECD mean of 498.

Figure E5.1 Mean mathematical literacy scores of 15-year-old students in OECD countries, PISA 2006
Source: OECD (2007d), Table T6.2c 

New Zealand’s spread of mathematical literacy scores (the gap between the 5th and 95th percentiles), at 306 points, was similar to the OECD average gap of 300 points. A wider spread of scores indicates a higher level of disparity between high and low achievers within a country.

Nineteen percent of New Zealand students were in the highest mathematical literacy levels, attaining at Level 5 or above, compared with an OECD average of 13 percent. At the other end of the scale, 14 percent of New Zealand students scored at Level 1 or below, compared with an OECD average of 21 percent. 

There was no significant change in the overall performance of New Zealand students between 2003 and 2006 (results from the 2000 study are not directly comparable with later years). 
Sex differences
On average, boys (527) had better mathematical literacy scores than girls (517). Boys were more likely than girls to be in the top three levels of mathematical literacy (44 percent compared with 38 percent). However, the same proportion of boys and girls (14 percent) were at the lowest levels of proficiency, achieving at Level 1 or below. 
Ethnic differences
On average, Pākehā (European) and Asian students performed significantly better than Māori and Pacific students. The difference between the mean scores for European (539) and Asian (548) students was not statistically significant but both were considerably higher than those for Māori (479) and Pacific (463) students.
International comparison
New Zealand students performed strongly in mathematical literacy, with the mean score of 522 being significantly above the OECD mean of 498. Only three OECD countries (5 countries overall) performed significantly higher than New Zealand which had a mean score similar to that of Canada (527) and Australia (520), but significantly higher than those of the United Kingdom (495) and the United States (474). New Zealand’s position relative to these four countries was similar for both girls and boys.

New Zealand boys and girls both performed well, compared to their international counterparts, achieving mean scores higher than the OECD average for their sex. For both sexes, the mean score for New Zealand was similar to those of Canada and Australia, and higher than those of the United Kingdom and the United States.
The spread of scores among New Zealand students (a gap of 306 points between the 5th and the 95th percentile) compares with that of students in the United States (297), the United Kingdom (292), Australia (289) and Canada (281).

Only five OECD countries had higher proportions of students achieving the three highest levels of mathematical literacy than New Zealand (41 percent). This was a similar proportion to that of Canada (43 percent) and Australia (40 percent), but considerably higher than the proportion of students reaching these levels in the United Kingdom (29 percent) and the United States (23 percent).

At the other end of the scale, only 3 OECD countries had lower proportions of students achieving no higher than Level 1.  Canada (11 percent), Australia (13 percent) had similar proportions of low achievers to New Zealand (14 percent), while the United Kingdom (20 percent) and particularly the United States (28 percent) had higher proportions.

Scientific literacy at age 15
Definition 
The mean scores for 15-year-old New Zealand students based on the international scientific literacy scale set by the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) study in 2006. The combined scientific literacy scale is derived from an assessment of three scientific competencies (identifying scientific issues, explaining phenomena scientifically and using scientific evidence) and two scientific knowledge areas (knowledge of science and knowledge about science.)
Relevance
For the purposes of PISA 2006, scientific literacy refers to an individual’s:
•	scientific knowledge and use of that knowledge to identify questions, acquire new knowledge, explain scientific phenomena and draw evidence-based conclusions about science-related issues;
•	understanding of the characteristic features of science as a form of human knowledge and enquiry;
•	awareness of how science and technology shape our material, intellectual, and cultural environments; and
•	willingness to engage in science-related issues and with the ideas of science, as a reflective citizen.
Current level and trends
In 2006, the mean performance in scientific literacy for 15-year-old New Zealand students overall was 530 score points, significantly above the OECD mean of 500.

Figure E6.1 Mean scientific literacy scores of 15-year-old students in OECD countries, PISA 2006
Source: OECD (2007), Table 2.1c 

When compared with other OECD countries, New Zealand had the widest spread of science scores with a range of 352 points between the fifth and 95th percentiles. The average gap among the OECD countries was 311 points. A wider spread of scores indicates a higher level of disparity between high and low achievers within a country.

Eighteen percent of New Zealand students attained the highest scientific literacy levels, reaching Level 5 or higher, compared with an OECD average of 9 percent. At the other end of the scale, 14 percent of New Zealand students scored at Level 1 or lower, compared with an OECD average of 19 percent.

Comparisons with earlier years are not possible because of changes in the way scientific literacy is measured in the survey.
Sex differences
There was no significant difference in the performance of girls (532) and boys (528) on the combined scientific literacy scale. Similar proportions of girls (17 percent) and boys (18 percent) performed at the top two levels of proficiency, while at the lower end of the scale slightly fewer girls (12 percent) than boys (15 percent) failed to demonstrate proficiency above Level 1.
Ethnic differences
On average, Pākehā (European) and Asian students performed significantly better than Māori and Pacific students. On the combined scientific literacy scale European students scored an average of 554 points while Asians scored 541, both significantly above the OECD average of 500. Māori students scored an average of 480 and Pacific students 454. 
International comparison
On the combined scientific literacy scale only one OECD country (Finland, 563) performed significantly better than New Zealand. New Zealand’s performance (530) was about the same as that of Canada (534) and Australia (527). It was significantly better than the performance of the United Kingdom (515) and the United States (489). 

New Zealand boys and girls both performed well, compared to their international counterparts, achieving mean scores higher than the OECD average for their sex. For both sexes, the mean score for New Zealand was similar to those of Canada and Australia, and higher than those of the United Kingdom and the United States.

The spread of scientific literacy scores among New Zealand students (a gap of 352 points between the 5th and the 95th percentile) was similar to that in the United Kingdom (348) and the United States (344), but wider than that of students in Australia (328) and Canada (309).

Only one OECD country (Finland) had a significantly higher proportion of students achieving the three highest levels of scientific literacy than New Zealand. At 42 percent, the New Zealand figure was similar to that of Canada (42 percent) and Australia (39 percent), but higher than the proportion of students reaching these levels in the United Kingdom (36 percent) and the United States (27 percent).

At the other end of the scale, only two OECD countries had significantly lower proportions of students achieving no higher than Level 1 than New Zealand. Canada (10 percent), Australia (13 percent) had similar proportions of low achievers to New Zealand (14 percent), while the United Kingdom (17 percent) and the United States (24 percent) had higher proportions.

Retention of students in senior secondary schools
Definition
The percentage of students staying on at school to age 17.
Relevance
Completion of upper secondary education is associated with a range of economic and social benefits. When students are successfully engaged in senior secondary school they are more likely to acquire the skills and knowledge required for participation in our increasingly knowledge-based society. The positive effect of each additional year of schooling on incomes has been estimated to range from 5 to 10 percent. Staying at school can also help young people’s social adjustment. New Zealand research has found that staying at school to the seventh form helps boys in particular, by providing stability as they negotiate their way through “the chaos of adolescence”.
Current level and trends
In 2006, an estimated 71.1 percent of students stayed at school to their 17th birthday. This figure comes from a new measure of senior secondary school retention, based on electronic student rolls.

For trends in retention rates over time, a different measure is used, based on snapshots of aggregate data at 1 July each year. 

Retention rates for students aged 17.5 years decreased during much of the 1990s, then rose from 1996 to peak at 63.1 percent in 1999. After falling sharply to 56.9 percent in 2002, the student retention rate to age 17.5 recovered to 60.5 percent in 2004. The rate was 60.8 percent in 2007, representing very little change over the last four years.

Figure E7.1 Estimated proportion of students staying on at school to age 17.5, by sex, 1992–2007
Source: Ministry of Education
Notes:
(1) The figures in the table represent the proportion of 14.5 year olds, as at 1 July, still enrolled at school 3 years later.
(2) This measure is calculated from aggregate roll return data which captures the age of the students in whole years. Therefore, a student aged 17 on 1 July could be between 17 years and 0 days and 17 years and 364 days. Statistically it is a measure of those who stay at school to age 17.5 years, on average.
Sex differences
Females are more likely than males to stay at school to age 17.5 (65.1 percent and 56.7 percent, respectively, in 2007).This difference has changed little since 2000, but is markedly different from the early 1990s when females and males had similar retention rates.
Ethnic differences
Using the new measure of retention for 2006, Māori students had the lowest estimated proportion of students remaining at school to age 17, with 53.4 percent. This compares with an estimated retention rate of 75.4 percent for Pacific students and 72.2 percent for European/Pākehā students.

Table E7.1 Estimated proportion (%) of domestic students staying on at school, by age and ethnic group, 2006
Ethnic Group	Age at leaving school	
	16 years old and above	17 years old and above	18 years old and above	
Māori	80.6	53.4	20.2	
Pacific	93.8	75.4	36.0	
Asian	98.7	91.9	52.6	
European/Pākehā	92.0	72.2	31.3	
Total	90.8	71.1	32.0	
Source: Ministry of Education
Note: These measures were calculated using the proportions of school leavers aged 16 or above, 17 or above, and 18 or above from a file of disaggregated school leaver records.  As the data included just over 90% of school leavers, all figures are estimates.

Using the aggregate measure, in 2007, 39.1 percent of Māori remained at school to age 17.5, compared with 68.1 percent for Pacific students and 62.0 percent for European/Pākehā. The gap between Māori and non-Māori in the rate of students remaining at school to age 17.5 has not narrowed over time.

Figure E7.2 Estimated proportion of students staying on at school to age 17.5, by ethnic group, 1992–2007

Source: Ministry of Education
Notes:
(1) The figures in the graph represent the proportion of 14.5 year olds, as at 1 July, still enrolled at school 3 years later.
(2) This measure is calculated from aggregate roll return data which captures the age of the students in whole years. Therefore, a student aged 17 on 1 July could be between 17 years and 0 days and 17 years and 364 days. Statistically it is a measure of those who stay at school to age 17.5 years, on average.

Socio-economic differences
There is a clear correlation between school quintile (the socio-economic mix of the school the student attended) and the proportion of students remaining at school to age 17.5. Schools in the highest quintile (deciles 9 and 10) draw their students from communities with the lowest degree of socio-economic disadvantage. In 2007, students from these schools were 56 percent more likely to remain at school to age 17.5 than students in the lowest quintile (deciles 1 and 2).

Figure E7.3 Estimated proportion of students staying on at school to age 17.5, by school socio-economic quintile, 2007
Source: Ministry of Education
Notes
(1) The figures in the graph represent the proportion of 14.5 year olds, as at 1 July, still enrolled at school 3 years later.
(2) This measure is calculated from aggregate roll return data which captures the age of the students in whole years. Therefore, a student aged 17 on 1 July could be between 17 years and 0 days and 17 years and 364 days. Statistically it is a measure of those who stay at school to age 17.5 years, on average.
Regional differences
There is wide regional variation in the rate at which students stay on to senior secondary school. In 2007, the Auckland region (67.6 percent) had the highest rate of student retention to age 17.5, followed by Wellington (66.3 percent) and Otago (65.2 percent). The West Coast region had the lowest rate (40 percent), with Northland (45.8 percent), the Gisborne region (47.3 percent) and Marlborough (48.4 percent) all recording less than 50 percent.

School leavers with higher qualifications
Definition
The proportion of secondary school leavers who left school with a qualification at National Certificate of Educational Achievement (NCEA) Level 2 or above.
Relevance
Upper secondary school qualifications serve as the foundation for higher (post-secondary) learning and training opportunities as well as the preparation for direct entry into the labour market. Those who leave school early with few qualifications are at a much greater risk of unemployment or vulnerability in the labour force and of having low incomes..
Current level and trends
In 2007, 66 percent of school leavers (37,000 students) left school with a qualification at NCEA Level 2 or above, an increase from the 2006 figure of 60 percent (34,000 students). Because of changes in the qualification structure, it is not possible to compare exactly the attainment of upper secondary school students who left school before 2003 with those who left school in 2003 and later. To illustrate the trend in higher school attainment over the long term, Figure E8.1 includes the proportion of school leavers who left with Higher School Certificate and above for the years 1986 to 2002.

Figure E8.1 Proportion of school leavers with Higher School Certificate or above, 1986–2002, and NCEA Level 2 or above, 2003, 2005–2007

Source: Ministry of Education
Note: Because of methodological changes in the allocation of attainment levels in 2004, the data for that year is not comparable with other years and has been omitted.
Sex differences
Female students are more likely than male students to leave school with an upper secondary school qualification. Between 2006 and 2007, the proportion of school leavers with NCEA Level 2 or above increased for both sexes but there was a slightly larger increase for females than for males. As a result, the sex difference in school attainment widened slightly between 2006 and 2007, from 8.7 percentage points to 9.3 percentage points.

Table E8.1 Proportion (%) of school leavers with NCEA Level 2 or above, by sex, 
2003, 2005–2007
Year	Males	Females	
2003	47.6	57.9	
2005	52.0	62.3	
2006	55.8	64.5	
2007	60.9	70.2	
Source: Ministry of Education
Note: Because of methodological changes, 2004 is not comparable with other years and has been omitted.
Ethnic differences	
The proportion of school leavers with upper secondary school qualifications varies widely by ethnic group. Asian students who left school in 2007 had the highest proportion with NCEA Level 2 or above, followed by European school leavers, then Pacific and Māori school leavers. Between 2006 and 2007, there was an increase for all ethnic groups in the proportion of students leaving with a qualification at NCEA Level 2 or above. The increase was greater for Māori and Pacific students than for European and Asian students. 

Table E8.2 Proportion (%) of school leavers with NCEA Level 2 or above, by ethnic group, 2003, 2005–2007
Year	European	Māori	Pacific peoples	Asian	Other	Total	
2003	57.4	28.8	42.3	75.1	54.2	52.6	
2005	63.0	32.7	45.3	79.9	55.8	57.1	
2006	65.4	36.7	49.6	82.2	63.5	60.2	
2007	70.6	43.9	56.0	84.2	67.0	65.5	
Source: Ministry of Education
Note: Because of methodological changes, 2004 is not comparable with other years and has been omitted.

Socio-economic differences
Young people from schools that draw their students from low socio-economic communities are less likely than other young people to attain higher school qualifications. In 2007, only 49 percent of school leavers from deciles 1–3 schools (in the most disadvantaged communities) attained qualifications at NCEA Level 2 or above, compared with 62 percent of those leaving deciles 4–7 schools and 79 percent of those leaving deciles 8–10 schools.
Regional differences
The Otago Wellington and Auckland regions had the highest proportions (70 percent) of 2007 school leavers with qualifications at NCEA Level 2 or above, followed by Canterbury (68 percent). The West Coast had the lowest proportion (45 percent), followed by Gisborne (55 percent) and Tasman (57 percent). 

Participation in tertiary education 
Definition
The proportion of the population aged 18–24 years enrolled at any time during the year in formal tertiary education leading to a recognised New Zealand qualification.
Tertiary education providers include public institutions (universities, polytechnics, wänanga), and private tertiary education providers receiving government funding and registered with the New Zealand Qualifications Authority. Qualifications range from certificates and diplomas to bachelor and post-graduate degrees. Domestic students only are included.
Relevance
The acquisition of a tertiary qualification provides young people with skills and knowledge to participate in society and in the economy.
Current level and trends
During 2007, 36.8 percent of young people aged 18–24 years (154,000 people) were enrolled in formal tertiary education, a marginal increase on the proportion in 2006 (36.5 percent, or 150,600 people). The tertiary education participation rate for 18–24 year olds increased between 1999 and 2001, fell slightly between 2002 and 2003, and increased very gradually between 2003 and 2007.

Figure E9.1 Tertiary education participation rate, 18–24 years, 1999–2007

Source: Ministry of Education

Sex and age differences
Young women are more likely than young men to be enrolled in tertiary study. In 2007, the tertiary participation rate of females aged 18–24 was 39.0 percent, while the rate for males of that age was 34.6 percent. Between 1999 and 2001, the tertiary participation rate increased for both sexes aged 18–24 years, but more for females than males. Over the next two years the male rate dropped slightly while the female rate held steady. As a result, the sex gap increased from 3 to 7 percentage points between 1999 and 2003. From 2004 the male tertiary participation rate recovered, narrowing the sex gap to 4 percentage points in 2007. There is a greater sex difference in the tertiary participation rate at 18–19 years than at 20–24 years.

Table E9.1 Tertiary participation rates (%) at 18–24 years, by age and sex, 1999–2007
Year	Male	Female	
	18–19	20–24	18–24	18–19	20–24	18–24	
1999	40.3	28.9	32.3	46.5	31.1	35.6	
2000	40.7	30.1	33.3	47.2	32.7	37.0	
2001	40.6	31.1	34.0	48.6	35.0	39.0	
2002	39.7	30.8	33.6	47.2	36.1	39.4	
2003	38.6	29.8	32.5	46.7	36.0	39.2	
2004	39.5	29.6	32.5	47.9	36.4	39.8	
2005	40.9	29.7	33.0	48.6	35.9	39.6	
2006	42.3	30.7	34.2	48.8	34.8	38.9	
2007	42.7	31.2	34.6	49.6	34.6	39.0	
Source: Ministry of Education
Ethnic differences
The European ethnic group had the highest tertiary education participation rate at 18–24 years in 2007 (37 percent). The rate for the Asian ethnic group (32 percent) was slightly above that of Māori and Pacific ethnic groups (31 percent and 30 percent respectively).  Between 2002 and 2007, the tertiary participation rate of 18–24 year olds remained steady for the European ethnic group, declined for Māori and increased for Pacific peoples. The rate for Asian young people fell sharply between 2001 and 2003 but had almost recovered to its 2001 level by 2007.

Figure E9.2 Tertiary participation rate at age 18–24 years, by ethnic group, 2001–2007

Source: Ministry of Education

In each of the main ethnic groups, females have higher tertiary participation rates than males. The sex difference is greatest for Māori and Pacific students.

Table E9.2 Tertiary participation rates (%), 18–24 years, by ethnic group, 2001–2007
Year	Male	Female	
	European	Māori	Pacific	Asian	European	Māori	Pacific	Asian	
2001	34.2	24.8	23.0	33.7	38.1	35.5	29.4	33.7	
2002	35.0	25.2	24.3	27.5	38.9	41.1	32.8	28.8	
2003	34.5	25.1	24.6	23.9	39.4	41.8	35.1	25.9	
2004	34.1	25.3	24.6	24.2	39.6	41.5	36.6	26.9	
2005	34.6	25.0	24.9	26.4	39.6	38.9	36.6	29.6	
2006	35.6	25.7	24.7	29.7	38.7	36.6	34.4	30.3	
2007	35.8	26.2	25.2	31.8	39.1	34.9	35.4	32.2	
Sources: Ministry of Education
International comparison
There are no robust measures of tertiary participation across OECD countries. Some indication of New Zealand’s relative standing can be gained from the proportion of people enrolled in education at diploma and degree level at various ages. In 2005, 30 percent of 18–24 year olds were enrolled in education at diploma or degree level, placing New Zealand seventh out of 28 countries. This was above the OECD median of 27 percent. The New Zealand rate was higher than those of the United Kingdom (22 percent), Canada (28 percent) and Australia (29 percent) but below the rate for the United States (36 percent). Note, however, that the OECD data also includes international students, excluded from the analysis above.

Tertiary qualification completion
Definition
The number of 18–24 year olds who graduated or completed a qualification at a tertiary education institute, as a proportion of all 18–24 year olds.
Relevance
Qualification completion rates at the core tertiary participation age is a useful measure of the skill acquisition of young people as they enter adulthood. The term “completion” refers to successful completion of a qualification, rather than a course. Course completion rates will generally be much higher than qualification completion rates as most qualifications will require the successful completion of a large number of courses to qualify the student. This measure is best viewed alongside the access measure, tertiary participation.
Current level and trends
In 2006, 34,426 students aged 18–24 years graduated or completed a qualification at a tertiary education institute. This represents 8.3 percent of all 18–24 year olds. In recent years the rate has been fairly steady, fluctuating between 8 and 9 percent from 2000 to 2006, after rising from 7 percent in 1999.

Figure E10.1 Proportion of 18–24 year olds who completed a tertiary qualification, by type of institution, 1999–2006

Source: Ministry of Education

Differences by type of institution and qualification
Despite the growing diversity of tertiary institutions, young people are still more likely to gain qualifications from a university than from other types of tertiary institution. In 2006, 4.0 percent of all 18–24 year olds completed university qualifications, 2.3 percent completed qualifications at institutes of technology or polytechnics, and 1.7 percent graduated from private tertiary establishments. Less than one percent of 18–24 year olds graduated from colleges of education and wānanga (Māori tertiary education institutions).

Bachelors degrees are the qualification most likely to be completed by young adults, with 3.5 percent of 18–24 year olds gaining such degrees in 2006. These were followed by Levels 1–3 certificates which are equivalent to a senior secondary school education (2.3 percent), Level 4 certificates and Level 5–7 diplomas which consist of mid-register qualifications and workplace learning (2.1 percent), and postgraduate qualifications (0.7 percent).
Sex differences
Young females have higher tertiary completion rates than young males (9.9 percent compared with 6.8 percent in 2006). This has been the case throughout the period 1999–2006 and the pattern is the same across all types of tertiary institutions and all award levels except doctorate level.

Table E10.1 Proportion (%) of 18–24 year olds who completed a tertiary qualification, by sex and year of completion, 1999–2006
Year of completion	Female 	Male 	Total 	
1999	8.1	5.8	7.0	
2000	9.6	6.9	8.3	
2001	10.0	7.4	8.7	
2002	10.0	7.2	8.6	
2003	10.2	6.9	8.5	
2004	10.3	6.8	8.5	
2005	10.0	7.2	8.6	
2006	9.9	6.8	8.3	
Source: Ministry of Education
Ethnic differences
Young Māori are less likely than non-Māori to complete tertiary qualifications, with 5.6 percent of 18–24 year old Māori doing so in 2006, compared with 8.9 percent of non- Māori. Tertiary completion rates rose faster for young Māori than for non-Māori between 1999 and 2003 but in subsequent years the Māori rate has declined while the rate for non-Māori has remained steady.

Table E10.2 Proportion (%) of 18–24 year olds who completed a tertiary qualification, Māori and non-Māori, by sex and year of completion, 1999–2006
Year of completion	Māori	Non-Māori	
	Female	Male	Total	Female	Male	Total	
1999	4.8	3.6	4.2	8.9	6.3	7.6	
2000	6.1	4.4	5.3	10.5	7.5	9.0	
2001	6.6	5.2	5.9	10.8	7.9	9.3	
2002	8.6	5.1	6.9	10.3	7.7	9.0	
2003	9.7	5.2	7.5	10.3	7.3	8.8	
2004	9.0	4.8	7.0	10.5	7.2	8.9	
2005	8.1	4.8	6.5	10.4	7.7	9.0	
2006	7.1	4.1	5.6	10.6	7.3	8.9	
Source: Ministry of Education

Māori are more likely than non-Māori to achieve Levels 1–3 certificates (equivalent to a senior secondary school education) while non-Māori have higher rates of achievement at Bachelors degree and postgraduate levels. Among both Māori and non-Māori, young women are more likely to complete qualifications than young men. Although young Māori women are much more likely than young Māori men to complete degree level or postgraduate qualifications, they are still considerably less likely to do so than young non-Māori women.

Table E10.3 Proportion (%) of 18–24 year olds who completed a tertiary qualification, Māori and non-Māori, by sex and qualification type, 2006
Qualification type	Māori	Non-Māori	
	Female	Male	Total	Female	Male	Total	
Levels 1–3 Certificate	3.3	2.0	2.7	2.6	2.0	2.3	
Level 4 Certificate or 
   Levels 5–7 Diploma	2.1	1.2	1.7	2.6	1.8	2.1	
Bachelors degree	1.7	0.9	1.3	4.9	3.2	4.0	
Postgraduate qualification	0.3	0.1	0.2	1.0	0.7	0.8	
Total	7.1	4.1	5.6	10.7	7.3	8.9	
Source: Ministry of Education.
Five-year completion rates
Of those 20–24 year olds who began studying for a tertiary qualification in 2002, 42 percent had completed by the end of 2006. The five-year completion rate was higher for females (46 percent) than for males (37 percent). It was also higher for people belonging to Asian ethnic groups (48 percent) than for Europeans (43 percent), Māori (41 percent) or Pacific students (34 percent). Students at private training establishments were the most likely to complete their qualifications within five years (47 percent), followed by those at universities (40 percent), while the least likely to finish in this time were those at institutes of technology or polytechnics (31 percent).
International comparison
In 2005 New Zealand had the third highest tertiary type A (degree-level qualification) graduation rate across 24 countries, with 51.3 percent of people at the typical age of graduation completing a tertiary type A qualification. New Zealand’s rate was lower than Australia’s (59.4 percent) but considerably higher than that of the United Kingdom (39.4 percent) and the United States (34.2 percent).  The OECD average was 36.4 percent.